Khóa luận A study on direct and indirect speech in English

Nội dung text: Khóa luận A study on direct and indirect speech in English

1. HAI PHONG PRIVATE UNIVERSITY FOREIGN LANGUAGE DEPARTMENT GRADUATION PAPER A STUDY ON DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH IN ENGLISH By : Le Thi Lan Anh Class : NA902 Supervisor : Dang Thi Van, M.A Hai Phong - 2009 1
2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all I would like to express my sincere and special gratitude to Ms Dang Thi Van, the supervisor, who has generously given us invaluable assistance and guidance during the preparation for this research paper. I also offer my sincere thanks to Ms Tran Ngoc Lien, the Dean of Foreign languages Department and all the teachers at Hai Phong Private University for their previous supportive lectures that helped me in preparing my graduation paper. Last but not least, my wholehearted thanks are presented to my family members and all of my friends for their constant support and encouragement in the process of doing this research paper. My success in studying is contributed much by all of you. Hai Phong – June 2009 Le Thi Lan Anh 2
3. SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS & And A Adverbial Ncl Noun clause O Object Od Direct object Oi Indirect object P Predicator S Subject V Verb Wh – question Question word Ex Example i.e. That is etc Et cetera + Plus [ ] Square brackets around the number indicates the number of the reference books listed in the references. When there are three items in the square bracket separated by a semicolon, Ex : [Thomson, 1985, p285], the first item indicates the first author’s name, the second item indicates the year that book was published, the later indicates the page. “ ” or ‘ ’ Inverted commas around words, phrases or clause indicate the direct quotations. / Oblique stroke is used to separated alternative words, phrase or terms. → The arrow indicates the transfer from the first sentence or structure to the second. 3
4. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS PART ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1. Rationale 1 2. Aims of the study 1 3. Scope of the study 2 4. Methods of the study 2 5. Design of the study 2 PART TWO: DEVELOPMENT 4 CHAPTER I : THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 4 I. AN OVERVIEW OF DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH IN ENGLISH 4 I.1. Definition 4 I.2. Forms of direct and indirect speech in writing structure 5 I.3. Function of direct and indirect speech 6 II. AN OVERVIEW OF CHANGING FROM DIRECT TO INDIRECT SPEECH 8 II .1. The use of punctuation marks 8 II .2. Say, tell, and alternative introductory verbs 10 II .3. Question in indirect speech 12 II .4. Commands, requests, advice and suggestion in indirect speech 16 CHAPTER II: CHANGES FROM DIRECT SPEECH TO INDIRECT SPEECH IN ENGLISH 19 II .1. Changes of clause types 19 II .1.1. Statements 19 II .1.2. Wh – questions 19 II .1.3. Yes – No questions 20 II .1.4. Commands 20 II .1.5. Exclamations 21 4
5. II .2. Changes in Verb forms (tenses) 22 II .2.1. Tense changes necessary 22 II .2.2. Past tenses sometimes remain unchanged 23 II .2.3. Auxiliary verbs and indirect speech 28 II .3. Changes in use of pointer words 34 II .3.1. Changes of pronouns and possessive adjectives 34 II .3.2. Changes of expressions of time and place in indirect speech 36 II .3.3. Position of what, who and which in indirect speech 38 II .3.4. Nouns clause as object – reported clauses in indirect speech 39 II .4. Mixed types indirect speech 42 II .5. Free indirect speech 43 II .6. Transferred negation 44 CHAPTER III: IMPLICATION OF THE STUDY 45 III .1. Errors in changing the direct into indirect speech 45 III .2. Errors in changing indirect speech into direct speech 47 III .3. Some common suggestions 48 PART THREE: CONCLUSION 49 REFERENCES 50 APPENDIX 52 5
6. PART ONE: INTRODUCTION 1. RATIONALE At present, English has become the most widely - used language all over the world. It has often been referred to a “global language” and used internationally in business, political, cultural relation and education as well. Thanks to widespread use of English, different countries can come closer to each other to work out problems and strive for a prosperous community. Realizing the significance of English, Vietnamese learners have been trying to be good at English. Mastering English is the aim of each learner. However, to Vietnamese learners, English grammar is rather complex, direct & indirect speech appears to be one of the most difficult criteria, particularly the way to change direct to indirect speech. In the process of learning English grammar, learners always face a lot of difficulties such as: tense changes, possessive adjective changes, changes of personal pronouns, adverbials of time and place, etc. Therefore, to help the learners clearly understand how to change direct speech to indirect speech and use indirect speech in writing as well as in speaking correctly, “ A study on direct and indirect speech in English” is chosen as the topic of the research paper. Besides, some common mistakes are found out and some solutions are also given. 2. AIMS OF THE STUDY The study “A study on direct and indirect speech in English” is aimed at: 1. Helping learners understand how to form direct and indirect speech, use it correctly as well. 2. Describing and classifying all the cases of the of changing direct to indirect speech. 3. Finding out common errors made by Vietnamese learners and suggesting some solutions. 6
7. 3. METHOD OF THE STUDY With the above aims, my method of the study depends on knowledge collected from the previous lectures of my teachers and the supportive help of my supervisor & my friends. I also have looked up some books and references published by Longman Group (FE) Ltd, Oxford University, etc. Furthermore, to help learners have clear understanding about direct and indirect speech, all definitions, analysis & examples of my study are extracted from words of Quirk, R & Green Baum, S (1973), Alexander, L. G (1988) and Thomson, A. J. (1985), etc. Finally, there are a number of documents for my research selected from reliable sources on websites. 4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY In learning languages, using direct and indirect speech is regarded as one of the most complicated problems, because direct and indirect speech in each language has its own features. I have no ambition to cover it in all languages due to the limitation of time, knowledge and experience. Therefore, I decide to focus on direct and indirect speech in English and related fields, i.e. definition, basic form, common rules, etc. Additionally, I also discuss about some difficulties and errors which Vietnamese learners may face and suggest solutions experienced during my study process. 5. DESIGN OF THE STUDY The research study is divided into three parts of which the second part is the most important one.  Part one is the introduction, which gives the reason for choosing the topic of the study, pointing out aims of conducting the study, marking out the methods applied, limiting the study & giving out the design of the study as well.  Part two refers to the main content that consists of three chapters :  Chapter I is the theoretical background knowledge of the study. In this chapter, emphasis is laid on the definition of direct speech & indirect speech in English, their basic forms and functions in grammar, besides a quirk overview of changing from Direct to indirect speech about the use of punctuation marks; say, tell, and alternative introductory verbs; question in indirect speech; commands, requests, advice and suggestion in indirect speech. 7
8.  Chapter II is the main part of the study, describes the changes from direct speech to indirect speech. This chapter deals with six problems : . Changes of clause types. . Changes in verb forms. . Changes in use of pointer words. . Mixed types in indirect speech. . Free indirect speech. . Transferred negation.  Chapter III is the last part of the research paper. It focuses on some errors made by Vietnamese learners & solutions suggested to over come the problems.  Part three is the Conclusion of the whole study in which I summarize all the matters discussed on the two previous parts, show reference used in the research paper and some exercises for practicing well. 8
9. PART TWO: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER I : THEORETICAL BACKGROUND I. AN OVERVIEW OF DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH IN ENGLISH I.1. Definition There are many linguists who study direct & indirect speech in English and they have their own ideas and definitions about them. According to, Thomson (1985, p269) “In direct speech we repeat the original speaker’s exact words” Ex : He said, ‘I have lost my umbrella’. His definition is nearly the same with the website “Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech)” and the website direct-and-indirect-speech “When we quote word for word what somebody says, we use inverted commas (quotation marks) and we repeat exactly the original utterance, this is called direct speech”. Ex : David (to Tom) : Have you seen The Two Towers? (original utterance). However, in my opinion, the best way to define direct speech is that we use direct speech whenever we speak i.e. when we talk directly to the hearer. We use the term direct speech word in writing, in direct speech we repeat the original speaker’s exact words. Similar with direct speech’s definition, a number of ways are defined about indirect speech by Thomson (1985, p269) “In indirect speech we give the exact meaning of a remark or a speech, without necessarily using the speaker’s exact words”. Ex : He said (that) he had lost his umbrella. In the website that definition is “Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word”. 9
10. I .2. Forms of direct and indirect speech in writing structure I .2.1. Forms of direct speech Quoted structures are sometimes called direct speech. A quoted structure consists of two clauses, one clause is a reporting clause which contains the reporting verb. Ex: “I love England”, he said. “he said” is a reporting clause. The other part is the quote “I love England”, which represents what someone says or has said. [Hartley, 2005, p83] Here is the table of form of direct speech in writing structure : Actual spoken statement Actual spoken question ‘I’m waiting.’ ‘When did you arrive, John?’ Direct statement in writing Direct question in writing ‘I’m waiting.’ John said. ‘When did you arrive, John?’ Mary asked. [Alexander, 1988, p284] Furthermore, according to Quirk (1985, p1022) the reporting clause may occur before, within, or after the direct speech. Medial position is very frequent. When the reporting clause is positioned medially or finally, subject – verb inversion may occur if the verb is in the simple present or simple past: Ex : ‘As a result,’ said John / John said, “I am very angry”. (*) He said, [Quirk, 1973, p341] ‘The radio is too loud,’ Elizabeth complained / she complained Complained Elizabeth. [Quirk, 1985, p1022] Inversion is most common when the verb is said, the subject is not a pronoun and the reporting clause is medial, as in (*). It is unusual and archaic, however, when the subject of the reporting clause is a pronoun, even when the verb is said (Ex : said he). 10
11. I .2.2. Forms of indirect speech The major differences in English between the basic forms of Direct (or quotes) Speech and Indirect (or reported) speech is that the indirect forms have no quotation marks and are introduced by a QUOTATIVE FRAME which consists of an attributed speaker (he, she, the boss) and a verb of saying (said, asked), followed by a conjunction (that, if). The intonation of the indirect speech form will be noticeably different from the direct speech form, particularly in the case of reported questions. [Yule, 1998, p272] Within the reported clause, a number of distinct shifts can be found. Ex : a. Clinton said, “I am very busy now.” b. Clinton said that he was very busy then. [www.english-for-students.com/DirecttoIndirectSpeech.html] a. ‘I have lived here for years,’ Ms Duncan said. b. Ms Duncan told me (that) she had lived there for years. [Alexander, 1988, p290] a. She said, “It'll rain tomorrow.” b. She told me it would rain the following day. [www.english-the-international-language.com/repsp.html] The above examples illustrate tense forms of the verb (present → past tense), other time references (tomorrow → the following day, now → then), place references (here → there), pronouns (I → He, you → her), etc. I .3. Function of direct and indirect speech I .3.1. Function of direct speech According to Quirk (1985, p1022) the direct speech functions as a subordinate clause: Direct speech seems to be a direct object. Ex : She said, “I've been teaching English for seven years.” [www.learnenglish.de/grammar/reportedspeech.htm] 11
12. Direct speech can function as subject complement in a pseudo-cleft construction. Ex : What Dorothy said was ‘My mother’s on the phone.’ [Quirk, 1985, p1022] Direct speech may be appositive to a unit that is clearly a part or the whole of the direct object: Ex : Dorothy used the following words : ‘My mother’s on the phone.’ [Quirk, 1985, p1023] On the other hand, we can view the reporting clause as subordinate, functioning as an adverbial. Thus, like most adverbials it can be positioned variously and can at least sometimes be omitted. Ex : ‘Generals,’ they alleged, ‘never retire ; they merely fade away.’ Moreover, the direct speech clause behaves like a main clause in that it can, for example, be a question or directive: Ex : He asked, “Why are you studying English?” [www.english-for-students.com/DirecttoIndirectSpeech.html] Ex : Dorothy said, ‘Tell my mother I’ll be over soon.’ [Quirk, 1985, p1023] But, of course, the reporting clause behaves likewise: Ex : Did you really say to Simon, “You like photography and collecting stamps”? [www.english-the-international-language.com/repsp.html] Ex : Tell Richard, ‘It's too late to catch the train’ [www.perfect-english-grammar.com/reported-speech.html] I .3.2. Function of indirect speech Typically, indirect speech is used to report statements, and takes the forms of a nominal that-clause. Indirect speech is a direct object Ex: The teacher said that phrasal verbs are very important. [ ] 12
13. It is an extrapolated subject & subject complement. Ex : It was said that the earthquake happened at half past seven [www.eslbase.com/grammar/reported-speech] Ex : What neighbors said was that as a teenager he had earned his pocket money by delivering newspapers. [Quirk, 1985, p1025] II . AN OVERVIEW OF CHANGING FROM DIRECT TO INDIRECT SPEECH II .1. The use of punctuation marks A. Quotation marks (or “inverted commas”) go round what is actually spoken and enclose other punctuation marks such as commas(,), full stop (.), question marks(?) and exclamation mark (!). They may be single(‘ ’), or double(“ .”) and are placed high above the base line at the beginning and end of each quotation. Ex : Jack said, “My wife went with me to the show yesterday.” Or : Jack said, ‘My wife went with me to the show yesterday.’ [ ] B. What is said, plus reporting verb and its subject, is considered as a whole unit. When the subject + reporting verb comes at the beginning of a sentence, the reporting verb is always followed by a comma (sometimes by a colon (:) in American English) and the quotation begins with a capital letter. Ex : The teacher said, “Review exercises two and three for the test!” [www.english-the-international-language.com/repsp.html] When the subject + reporting verb comes after what is said, the quotation has a comma before the second quotation mark. Ex : ‘I should go to the dentist’, John said. [www.eslbase.com/grammar/reported-speech] But if the quotation ends with an exclamation mark or a question mark, a comma is not used as well. 13
14. Ex : “Where can I get a taxi ?’ John asked. “What a lovely garden!” he said. [Allen, 1962, p270] Subject + verb can come in the middle of a quotation-sentence : Ex : ‘Meet me at the station’, he said, ‘10 a.m. tomorrow’. [www.perfect-english-grammar.com/reported-speech.html] The second part of the quotation does not begin with a capital letter because it is not a separate sentence. C. If there is a “quote within quote” (That is if we are quoting someone’s exact words) We use a second set of quotation marks. If double quotation marks have been used on the “outside”, single ones are used on the “inside” and vice versa. The inside quotation has its own punctuation, distinct from the rest of the sentence. Ex : Ann said, ‘Just as I was leaving, a voice shouted, “Stop!”’. ‘What do you mean, “Are you all right”?’ Ann asked. [Alexander, 1988, p284] We can also use a second set of quotation marks when we mention the title of a book, film or play. Ex : ‘How long did it take you to read “War and Peace”?’ I asked. [Alexander, 1988, p285] However, this is often a matter of personal taste. In print, titles often appear in italics without quotation marks. D. Noun + reporting verb may be in subject + verb order or may be inverted (verb + subject ). Ex : “We have finished our work”, John said. Or “We have finished our work”, said John. [Allen, 1962, p254] If the subject is a long one, then inversion is usual. Ex : “Where’s this train going ?” asked the lady sitting beside me. [Alexander, 1988, p285] 14
15. With a pronoun subject, inversion is rare in modern English. Ex : “Where are you going, Ann?” I asked. [www.english-for-students.com/DirecttoIndirectSpeech.html] Some reporting verbs, particularly those requiring an object, such as assure, inform and tell can not be inverted. Adverbs of manner usually come at the end. Ex : “Try again”, said Ann’s friends encouragingly. [Thomson, 1985, p281] E. Quotation marks are generally not required with reporting verbs such as ask oneself, think and wonder when they are used to describe “direct thoughts” in “free indirect speech”. Ex : So that was their little game, he thought. Where are they now, he wondered. [Alexander, 1988, p285] II .2. Say, tell, and alternative introductory verbs II .2.1. Say and tell with direct speech II .2.1.1. Say with direct speech Say is commonly associated with direct speech in writing. Ex : Jim said, “I like beer”. [www.english-the-international-language.com/repsp.html We can also use say with short, ordinary questions in direct speech (not long and complicated ones) : “Are you all right?’ he said /asked. (Not *told me*) [Alexander, 1988, p288] Moreover, say can introduce a statement or follow it: Ex : Harriet said, ‘I'm getting married tomorrow’ Or : ‘I'm getting married tomorrow’ Harriet said. [www.english-the-international-language.com/repsp.html] Particularly, inversion of say and noun subject is possible when say follows the statement : ‘I’ve just heard the news,’ said Tom. [Thomson, 1985, p276] 15
16. Say + to + person addressed is possible, but this phrase must follow the direct statement; it can not introduce it. Ex : ‘You are wrong, John,’ Mary said to me (Inversion is not possible here) [Quirk, 1973, p342] II .2.1.2. Tell with direct speech Tell requires the person addressed : Tell me; He told us; I’ll tell Tom. But except with tell lies/stories/the truth, when the person addressed need not be mentioned : He told (me) lies; I’ll tell (you) a story. Furthermore, tell used with direct speech must be placed after the direct statement. Ex : ‘I like your tie,’ she told John. [Quirk, 1985, p1029] Note : Inversion is not possible with tell. Especially, say or tell can be used in direct speech and can also introduce direct commands. Ex : ‘Why don’t you take off your coat?’ he told me/he said (to me). [Thomson, 1985, p281] II .2.2. Say and tell with indirect speech Say and tell someone + optional that can introduce indirect statements. We never use comma after say or tell someone. Ex : Jack said (that)/told me (that) his wife had gone with him to the show. [ ] If we need to mention the listener, tell + indirect object is generally preferable to say + to someone. Ex : He said he’d just heard the news. He told me that he’d just heard the news. [Thomson, 1985, p276] Note : tell how/about : Ex : He told us how he had studied English well. He told us about studying English well. [ ] 16
17. II .2.3. Alternative introductory verbs There are many other verbs we can use apart from said and told. Here is a list of verbs which are often used as reporting verbs: Accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologized, begged, boasted, complained, denied, explained, implied, invited, ordered, promised, replied, suggested, thought ,etc. These can be used with direct or indirect speech. With direct speech they follow direct statements, but in indirect speech, they can all introduce indirect statements and that should be placed after the verb. Ex : ‘His horse died in the night,’ he assured us. [www.english-for-students.com/DirecttoIndirectSpeech.html] Ex : Tom assured us that it wouldn’t cost more. But Bill objected/pointed out that it would take longer. [Thomson, 1985, p277] II .3. Question in indirect speech Questions in reported structures are sometimes called reported questions or indirect questions. The indirect question is really not a question at all. In a direct question, quotation marks and question marks are not used, as well as we put the auxiliary verb before the subject. That is be, have and modal auxiliaries in the direct question change back to statement word order (subject + verb); do, does and did disappear in reported questions. If there is no auxiliary verb, we put do before the subject. Ex : I wonder why you don’t listen to me. He wanted to know why the French ate frogs. [www.perfect-english-grammar.com/reported-speech.html] There are two main types of questions. Therefore, reported structures for questions are two main types. 17
18. II . 3.1. Reported Yes – No questions When we report a “Yes – No questions” we use an “If” – clause beginning with the conjunction “If” or a “Whether” – clause beginning with the conjunction “Whether”. The examples in the following table will show you a more concrete form of indirect Yes – No questions. Indirect question He asked me if/whether I was ready. He asked me if/whether I had finished. He asked me if/whether I played chess. He asked me if/whether he could have it. [Alexander, 1988, p293] Note : Normally we can use either if or whether in indirect Yes – No questions but if is more usual. Ex : He asked me if/whether I would come to the party. [www.learnenglish.de/grammar/reportedspeech.htm] We use “if” when the speaker has suggested one possibility that may be true. Ex : He asked if he should open the window. [Allen, 1962, p261] We use “whether” to emphasize that choice has to be made and to convey slightly greater doubt. Ex : She asked me whether I wanted tea or coffee. [Alexander, 1988, p294] He asked whether or not I she was satisfied. [Quirk, 1985, p1030] Additionally, whether + infinitive is possible after wonder, want to know. Ex : He wondered whether to wait for them or go on. Or : He wondered whether he should wait for them or go on. [Thomson, 1985, p278] 18
19. Lastly, “whether” is neater if the question contains a conditional clause as otherwise there would be two ifs. Ex : Bill asked whether, if I got the job, I’ve move to New York. [Thomson, 1985, p278]  Question beginning Shall I / We? in indirect speech. Question beginning Shall I / We? can be of four kinds: Speculations or requests for information about a future event. Ex : He wondered if he would ever forget her. [Allen, 1962, p261] Request for instruction or advice. Ex : “Tell me what to do with it”. [Thomson, 1985, p279] These are expressed in indirect speech by ask, inquire etc, with should or the be + infinitive construction. Requests for advice are normally reported by should Ex : Mary asked Bill if he should help her with her homework. [www.english-the-international-language.com/repsp.html] When a choice is required we normally use whether in indirect speech, whether + infinitive is sometimes possible. Ex : He asked whether he should / was to lock the car or leave it unlocked. Or : He asked whether to lock the car or leave it unlocked. [Thomson, 1985, p279] Offers. Ex : The porter offered to carry the guest's cases to her room. [www.english-the-international-language.com/repsp.html] Suggestions. Ex : He suggested I should come to the party. [www.learnenglish.de/grammar/reportedspeech.htm]  Questions beginning will you/could you? These may be ordinary questions, but many also be requests, invitations, or, very occasionally commands. 19
20. Ex : He said, ‘Will you be there tomorrow?’ (ordinary question) → He asked if she would be there the next day. [Thomson, 1985, p279] Ex : “Would you mind closing the window please?” or “Could you close the window please?” → She asked me to close the window. [www.perfect-english-grammar.com/reported-speech.html] II .3.2. Reported “Wh” – questions. When we report a “Wh”- question we use a “wh” – word at the beginning of the reported clause. The following examples will show the form of “wh”-questions in indirect speech. → She asked me where I came from. → I was wondering why don’t take the train; it'll be quicker → He wanted to know what I thought of it. → She asked me when she must be/ had to be there. [www.perfect-english-grammar.com/reported-speech.html] Here is the list of some verbs which can be used before clauses beginning with “wh” – words : Decide, discover, discuss, explain, forget, guess, imagine, know, learn, realize, remember, reveal, say, see, suggest, teach, tell, think, understand, wonder, ask, etc. Ex : I wondered what had happened. [Cobuild, 1990, p323] According to Alexander (1988, p296), beside two above main types, indirect questions also includes reported subject – questions in which tense changes and changes in modals occur in the usual way, but the word order of the direct question is retained. Ex : An old mouse asked who would bell the cat. [www.english-for-students.com/DirecttoIndirectSpeech.html] 20
21. Especially, reporting verbs other than ask can be used to introduce indirect subject – question : Please tell me who delivered this package. I want to know which piece fits in this puzzle. [Alexander, 1988, p296] II .4. Commands, requests, advice and suggestions in indirect speech II .4.1. Reported commands, requests and advice If someone orders, requests or advises someone else to do something, this can be reported by using a “to” infinitive clause. Indirect commands, requests, advice are usually expressed by a verb of command / request / advice + object + infinitive (= the object + infinitive construction). The following verbs can be used : advise, ask, beg, command, encourage, entreat, forbid, implore, invite, order, recommend, remind, request, tell, urge, warn, etc. They must be followed directly by the person addresses without preposition. Therefore, we must add a noun or pronoun when reporting such commands/requests. Ex : “Call the first witness”, said the Judge → The Judge commanded them to call the first witness. [www.english-for-students.com/DirecttoIndirectSpeech.html] Ex : He told me/him/her/us/them/the children to go away. [Thomson, 1985, p280] In case of negative commands, requests etc, they are often reported by not + infinitive Ex : The man with the gun said to us, “Don't move!” → The man with the gun warned us not to move. [www.hulya.cankaya.edu.tr/ingilizece4.htm] II .4.2. Other ways of expressing indirect commands A. Say / tell + subject + be + infinitive. Ex : He said I was to wait for him. [Alexander, 1988, p296] This is a possible alternative to the tell + infinitive construction, so that: He said, ‘Don’t open the door’ could be reported He told me not to open the door. Or : He said that I wasn’t to open the door. [Thomson, 1985, p282] 21
22. Particularly, the be + infinitive construction is useful in the following cases: (1). When the command is introduced by a verb in the present tense: Ex : He says that he has passed the examination. [www.english-for-students.com/DirecttoIndirectSpeech.html] (2). When the command is preceded by a clause (usually of time or condition) Ex : He said that if he were/had been in New York, he would visit/would have visited the current exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum. [Quirk, 1985, p1031] This indirect command would be equally possible here but note that if we use the tell + infinitive construction we must change the order of the sentence so as to put the command first. Sometimes this would result in rather confusing sentence. For example, the request If you see Ann, tell her to ring me would become He told me to tell Ann to ring him if I saw her. Such requests can only be reported by the be + infinitive construction. The example above could become He said that if I saw Ann I was to tell her to ring him. [Thomson, 1985, p282] B. Say/tell (+that) + subject + should This structure can be used to express indirect commands in the following cases: (1). Say or tell with a should construction normally indicates advice rather than command. Ex : He said, ‘If your brakes are bad don’t drive so fast’. → He said/told me that if my brakes were bad I shouldn’t drive so fast. Or → He advised me not to drive so fast if my brakes were bad. [Thomson, 1985, p282] (Note : change of order here, as with tell + infinitive above). (2). Advice can also be expressed by advise, recommend and urge + that + should. This is particularly useful in passive. Ex : He advised that her car should be repaired. [www.eslbase.com/grammar/reported-speech] 22
23. (3). Command and order can also be used with should or a passive infinitive. Ex : The teacher ordered that every student should do it again. Or The teacher ordered that it should be done again . Or The teacher ordered it to be done again. [Allen, 1962, p252] II .4.3. Reporting suggestions When someone makes a suggestion about what their hearer should do, we report it by using a “that” – clause. This clause often contains a modal, usually “should”. Ex : He proposed that the government should hold an inquiry. [Cobuild, 1990, p325] Furthermore, we can use let’s to express a suggestion and it is reported by the structures: S + Suggest + Ving. Or S + Suggest + that + S + Should + V. Ex : Carol suggested that I should have another apple. [Quirk, 1985, p1030] Similarly in the negative. Ex : He suggested not saying anything about it till they heard the facts. Or He suggested that they shouldn’t say about it till they heard the facts. [Thomson, 1985, p283] But let’s not used alone in answer to an affirmative suggestion is often reported by some phrase such as opposed the idea / was against it / objected so that we could report. Ex : John suggested going to cinema but Carol was against it. [www.perfect-english-grammar.com/reported-speech.html] 23
24. CHAPTER II : CHANGES FROM DIRECT TO INDIRECT SPEECH IN ENGLISH When changing one direct sentence into an indirect sentence, it is necessary to take many changes such as : changes of clause types, changes in verb forms, changes in use of pointer words, etc. II .1. Changes of clause types In chapter I, an overview of changing from direct to indirect speech in English is given. Now, let’s have a look at it clearly and systematically. Direct speech Indirect speech Independent clause in which one is of Main clause + subordinate clause, the types : the later becoming : II .1.1. Statements That clauses In the direct sentence, we need to use In the indirect sentence, quotation quotation marks. The position of marks disappear and we use “that” to subject and reporting verb is connect two clauses together. But changeable. It may come after or “that” sometimes is omitted. Besides, before the quotation. there are changes of tenses, pronouns, etc. Ex : Ann said, “I want to go to New Ex : Ann said that she wanted to go York next year”. to New York the following year. Or “I want to go to New York next Or : Ann said that she wants to go to year”, said Ann. New York the following year. [Murphy, 1998, P94] II .1.2. Wh – questions Wh- interrogative clauses In direct questions, we still need In indirect questions, we don’t need quotation marks. The position of the quotation marks and the word order subject and reporting verbs is is changed. The inversion after a changeable i.e. it may stand before or question word in a direct question after the quotation. changes back to statement word 24
25. Ex : “where is Julie?” she ask me. order in a reported question. If www.perfect-english- necessary, the tense changes at the grammar.com/reported-speech.html same time. And modal auxiliaries disappear indirect speech. Ex : She asked me where Julie was. II .1.3. Yes – No questions If / whether clauses In direct Yes – No question, we still In indirect Yes – No question, need quotation mark, question mark. quotation mark and question mark The position of the subject and are not used. There is a change in reporting verb is changeable, too. It word order. The inversion in the can stand before or after the direct question changes back to quotation. statement word order (subject + Ex : ‘She asked, “Do you want to verb) in the reported question and if come with me?” necessary, the tense is changed at the www.eslbase.com/grammar/reported- same time. Auxiliaries disappear in speech indirect question. If or whether is used to connect the two clauses. Ex : She asked me if I wanted to come with her. II .1.4. Command. To infinitive clauses. Direct commands are those in which When a direct command is turned the speaker chooses to express the into an indirect one, the following illocutionary force of command. The will be notice : speaker can say what she/he wants (a). The verb used is not say (with to) the hearer to do using imperative. but one like order, command, tell, The imperative is the form which ask, request, according to the shape conventionally determines the of meaning intended. illocutionary force of an utterance as (b). A direct object, representing the a request command or advice etc. person ordered, is introduced. (c). The imperative form of the verb 25
26. in the direct command becomes the corresponding infinitive. (d). An indirect negative command is expressed by ask, tell, order, etc. and a negative imperative. Ex : He said : “Lie down, Tom”. Ex : He told Tom to be lie down. [Thomson, 1985, p280] Ex : “Don’t smoke here!” she said. Ex : She told us not to smoke there. [www.perfect-english- grammar.com/reported-speech.html II .1.5. Exclamations Statements Exclamations are these statements In that case, Exclamations usually expressing unusual emphasis or great become statements in indirect speech excitement may end with an and the exclamation mark exclamation point. disappears. (1).Exclamations beginning What (a) In indirect speech, those can be or How reported by (a). exclaim/say that or by (b). given an exclamation of delight / disgust / horror / relief / surprise etc. Alternatively, if the exclamation is followed by an action, we can use the construction (c). with an exclamation of delight / disgust, etc. + he / she, etc. + verb. Ex : ‘What a silly boy you are!’ she → She told him what a silly boy he exclaimed. was. Or, She told him that he was a [Alexander, 1988, p292] silly boy. (2). Other types of exclamation, such In this situation, that can be reported as Good!, Marvelous!, Heaven!, as in (b). and (c). above : Oh!, etc. Ex : “Good!” he exclaimed. → He given an exclamation of 26
27. [Thomson, 1985, p284] pleasure/satisfaction. (3). Note also: She said, “Thank you!” → She thanked me. She said, “luck!” → She wished me luck. She said, “Traitor!” → She called me a traitor. She said, “Congratulations!” → She congratulated me. www.eslmonster.com/aricle/ exclamations-and-yes-and-no II .2. Changes in verb forms (tenses) Tense changes often occur in indirect speech because there is an interval between the original spoken words and the time when they are reported, but these changes are not always obligatory. It is the changing viewpoint of the reporting speaker or writer that decides the choice of appropriate forms, not complicated rules. The notes that follow are not “rules” but are based on observation of what often in practice. II .2.1. Tense changes necessary  In indirect speech we do not usually repeat the speaker’s exact words. Reporting usually takes place in the past, so the reporting verb is often in the past. As a result, the tenses of the reported clause are often “moved back”. This “moving back” of tenses is called back shift. A useful general rule is present becomes past and past becomes past perfect. The changes are shown in the following table : Direct speech Indirect speech Simple present → Simple past Present continuous → Past continuous Present perfect → Past perfect Present perfect continuous → Past perfect continuous Simple past → Past perfect Future → Conditional Future continuous → Conditional continuous Conditional → Conditional [Thomson, 1985, p270] 27
28. And that can be illustrated in the following examples : Direct speech Indirect speech He said, → He said that ‘I go to my class every day’. he went to his class every day. ‘I am learning English’. he was learning English. ‘I have learned English’. he had learned English. ‘I have been playing football’. he had been playing football. ‘I wrote a letter to my brother’. he had written a letter to his brother. ‘I will/shall see her in London’. he would see her in London. ‘I will/shall be using the car myself he’d be using the car himself on the on the 24th’. 24th. ‘If I had my pen, I could write the If he had had his pen, he could have answer’. written the answer. [Eckersley, 1960, p362] Particularly, we must normally use the past perfect to reported a statement whose verb was in the present perfect. And if the utterance in direct speech contains a verb in the past perfect, no back shift is possible, as English has no means of expressing “before – before – then” by tense or aspect. Ex : ‘I have lived in the south for years’, Mrs. Duncan said. → Mrs. Duncan told me (that) she had lived in the south for years. [Alexander, 1988, p290] Ex : Jim said: “Max had already gone when I phoned him this morning”. → Jim said that Max had already gone when he (had) phoned him that morning. www.learnenglish.de/grammar/reportedspeech.htm Note on I / we shall / should ‘I / we shall / should’ normally becomes he / she / they would in indirect speech. Ex : “I shall come later”, she said → She said she would come later. [www.perfect-english-grammar.com/reported-speech.html] 28
29. But if the sentence is reported by the original speaker, ‘I / we shall’ can become either I / we should or I / we would. Would is more common. Similarly, ‘I / we should’ usually becomes he / she / they would in indirect speech. Ex : ‘If I had the instruction manual I should / would know what to do,’ said Bill → Bill said that if he had the instructions he would know what to do. [Thomson, 1985, p270] But if the sentence is reported by the original speaker ‘I / we should’ can either remain unchanged or be reported by would. Ex : “I would / should go to the dentist.” → He said that he would / should go to the dentist. [www.eslbase.com/grammar/reported-speech]  In indirect question besides the changes of word order, there are changes in verb forms and connective words: The interrogative construction of the direct question is replaced by the statement construction in the indirect question. The verb that introduces the indirect question is asked (or some similar verbs : enquired, wondered, wanted to know,) according to the shade of meaning to be expressed. The connective joining the indirect question to the principle clause is if or whether except when the direct question had been one beginning with an interrogative such as who?, what?, why?, etc. in which case this interrogative is the connective. Some examples will make these points clear. Direct question Indirect question ‘Is Charles your brother?’ → He asked me if (whether) Charles was my brother. ‘Has John many friends?’ → He asked me if (whether) John had many friends. ‘Can Henry speak Spanish?’ → He asked me if (whether) Henry could speak Spanish. 29
30. ‘Will you help me?’ → He asked me if (whether) I would help him. ‘Has Mary spent all the money?’ → He asked (enquired) if (whether) Mary had spent all the money. ‘Is Henry really working hard?’ → He asked (wondered) if Henry was really working hard. [Eckersley, 1960, p366] Different with the examples above, those following ones are shown the changes when the verb is not a special finite. Direct question Indirect question ‘Do you know Mr. Brown?’ → He asked if (whether) I knew Mr. Brown. ‘Do you like children, Mrs. → He asked her if (whether) she Armitage?’ liked children. ‘Did you come with a friend?’ → He asked me if I had come with a friend. ‘Did you see that documentary on → He asked me if I had seen that TV last night?’ documentary on TV the previous night. [Eckersley, 1960, p366] In short, the explanation of the term “back shift” should now become clear : If there is (semantically) a shift into past in the reporting clause, there is a corresponding shift into the past (or if necessary, further into the past) in the reported clause. Now let’s move to the exceptions of back shift. Bearing in mind that back shift is part of the natural temporal “distancing” that takes place when we report what was said in the past, we should not be surprised that the rule of back shift can be ignored in case where the introductory verb is in a present, present perfect or future tense. 30
31. Ex : He says, “I go to school every day.” → He says (that) he goes to school every day. www.athabascau.ca/courses/engl/155/support/direct_and_indirect_speeh.htm This is usual when we are reporting a conversation that is still going on; reading a letter and reporting what it says; reading instructions and reporting them; reporting a statement that someone makes very often. Ex : Paul (phoning from the station) : I’m trying to get a taxi. Ann (to Mary, who standing behind her) : Paul says he is trying to get a taxi. [Thomson, 1985, p269] Furthermore, You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still true (but this is only for things which are general facts, and even then usually we like to change the tense) Ex : She said, “The sky is blue” → She said that the sky is/was blue. [www.perfect-english-grammar.com/reported-speech.html] Ex : Tom said, ‘New York is more lively than London.’ → Tom said that New York is more lively than London. [Murphy, 1998, p94] II .2.2. Past tenses sometimes remain unchanged A. In theory the past tense changes to the past perfect, but in spoken English it is often left unchanged, provided this can be done without causing confusion about the relative times of the actions. For example, He said, ‘I loved her’ must become He said he had loved her as otherwise there would be a change of meaning. But He said, ‘Ann arrived on Monday’ could be reported He said Ann arrived/had arrived on Monday. [Thomson, 1985, p271] B. The past continuous tense in theory changes to the past perfect continuous but in practice usually remains unchanged except when it refers to a completed action. Ex : She said, “I was walking along the street” → She said she had been walking along the street. [www.perfect-english-grammar.com/reported-speech.html] 31
32. But He said, ‘When I saw them they were playing tennis’ → He said that when he saw them they were playing tennis. [Thomson, 1985, p270] C. In written English past tense usually do change to past perfect but there are the following exceptions. (1)Past / Past continuous tense in time clauses do not normally change. Ex : He said, “When I was cooking, I burnt my hand” → He said that when he was cooking, he burnt his hand. [Murphy, 1998, p12] (2)A past tense used to describe a state of affairs which still exists when the speech is reported remains unchanged. Ex : She said, ‘I decided not to buy the house because it was on a main road’ → She said that she had decided not to buy the house because it was on a main road. [Thomson, 1985, p271]  Unreal past tenses (subjunctives) in indirect speech A. Unreal past tenses after wish, would rather / sooner and it is time do not change. Ex : “I wish I were richer”, she said. → She said she wished she were richer. “It’s time he learn to look after himself” she said. → She said that it was time he learnt to look after himself. [Alexander, 1988, p226] B.I, he, she, we, they had better remains unchanged, you had better can remain unchanged or be reported by advise + object + infinitive. Ex : “You don’t look very well. You had better not go to work today”, I said to him. → I said to him that he didn’t look very well and he had better not go to work that day. Or I advised him not go to work that day because he didn’t look well. [Thomson, 1985, p272] 32
33. II .2.3. Modal verb forms also sometimes change When there is a modal verb in the original statement, suggestion, etc., this sometimes changes when we report what was said. The changes discussed here are summarized in this table : Modal verb in original Modal verb in report Could, would, should, might, ought → Could, would, should, might, to, used to. ought to, used to. Will, can, may → Would, could, might Will, can, may (existing or future situations and present tense verb in reporting clause) Will or would, can or could, may or might (existing or future situations and past tense verb in reporting clause) Shall → Would, should (offers, suggestions, etc.) Must (= necessary) → Must or had to Must (= conclude) → Had to Mustn’t → Mustn’t [Hewings, 2002, p98] We sometimes use a modal verb in a report when there is no modal verb in the original Ex : “You’re not allowed to smoke here.” → She told me that I mustn’t smoke here. [Hewings, 2002, p98] II .2.3.1. Might, ought to, should, would, used to in direct speech. A. Might remains unchanged except when used as a request form. Ex : “It might be late”, I said. → I said / I was afraid that it might be late. [Swam, 1989, p505] 33
34. But “You might post these for me”, he said. → He asked me to post them for him. [Thomson, 1985, p272] B. Ought to / Should for obligation or assumption remains unchanged. Ex : “You should see a specialist”, he told me. → He told me I should see a specialist. [Alexander, 1988, p291] Ex : He said, “I ought to go to school every day.” → He said (that) he ought to go to school every day. [www.athabascau.ca/courses/engl/155/support/direct_and_indirect_speeh.ht m] C. But You ought to / You should, if used to express advice rather than obligation, can be reported by advised + object + infinitive. You must can also express advice and be reported similarly. Ex : “You ought to/should/must read the instructions”, said Ann. → Ann advised/urged/warned me to read the instructions. [Thomson, 1985, p272] D. The advice form “If I were you I should / would ” is normally reported by advised + object + infinitive. Ex : “If I were you I wouldn’t buy that coat”, he said. → He advised me not to buy that coat. [Murphy, 1998, p76] E. The request form “I should / would be (very) grateful if you would ” is normally reported by asked + object + infinitive Ex : ‘I’d be very grateful if you would keep me informed’, he said → He asked me to keep him informed. [Thomson, 1985, p272] F. Would in statements doesn’t change except would in request form. Ex : “It would be nice if I could see you again” he said. → He said that it would be nice if he could see me again. [Swam, 1989, p505] 34
35. G. Used to doesn’t change in reported clause. Ex : “I know the place well because I used to live here”, he explain. → He explain that he knew the place well because he used to live there. [Thomson, 1985, p272] II .2.3.2. Could in indirect speech A. Could for ability 1. Could for present ability does not change. Ex : She said, “I can/could speak perfect English”. → She said she could speak perfect English. [www.perfect-english-grammar.com/reported-speech.html] 2. Could for future ability can remain unchanged or be reported by would be able. Ex : She said, “I could teach English online tomorrow.” → She said she could teach/ would be able to teach English online the next day. [www.learnenglish.de/grammar/reportedspeech.htm] 3. Could in type 2 conditional sentences is reported similarly. Ex : ‘If I had the tools I could mend it’, he said. → He said that if he had the tools he could/would be able to mend it. [Thomson, 1985, p273] 4. Could in type 3 conditional reported unchanged. Ex : “If the weather hadn’t been so bad, we could have gone out”, she said. → She said that if the weather hadn’t been so bad, they could have gone out. [Murphy, 1998, p78] 5. Could for past ability can remain unchanged or be reported by had been able : Ex : “I could swim when I was four!” she boasted. → She boasted that she could/had been able to swim when she was four. [www.perfect-english-grammar.com/reported-speech.html] 35
36. B. Could for permission 1. In type 2 conditional sentences could can remain unchanged or be reported by would be allowed to : Ex : ‘If I paid my fine I could walk out of prison today’, he said. → He said that if he paid his fine he could/would be allowed to walk out of prison that day. [Thomson, 1985, p273] 2. Could in the past can remain unchanged or be reported by was / were allowed to or had been allowed to : Ex : She said, ‘When I was small I could have everything I liked’. → She said that as a small girl she was/had been allowed to have everything she liked. [www.english-for-students.com/DirecttoIndirectSpeech.html] II .2.3.3. Must and needn’t in indirect speech. II .2.3.3.1. Must in indirect speech A. Must used for deductions, permanent commands/prohibitions and to express intention remains unchanged. (1). Deductions : Ex : She said, ‘George must be a fool to behave like that’. → She said that George must be a fool to behave like that. [Alexander, 1988, p292] (2). Permanent command : Ex : ‘You must be home by 9 o’clock’, she said. → She said I must be home by 9 o’clock. [Hewings, 2002, p98] (3). Must used casually to express intention : Ex : He said, ‘We must have a party to celebrate this’. → He said that they must have a party to celebrate it. [Thomson, 1985, p286] 36
37. B. Must used for obligation can remain unchanged. Alternative it can be reported by would have to or had to. (1). I / we must reported by would have to “Would have to” is used when the obligation depends on some future action, or when the fulfillment of the obligation appears remote or uncertain, i.e. when “must” is clearly replaceable by “will have to”. Ex : “If you want to borrow my car, you must/will have to bring it back before ten”, he said. → He said that if I wanted to borrow his car I would have to bring it back before ten. [Swam, 1989, p346] Ex : “You must phone home at once. It’s urgent” he said. → He said that I would have to phone home at once because it was urgent. [Alexander, 1988, p228] (2). I / we must reported by had to. “Had to” is the usual form for obligations where times for fulfillment have been fixed, or plans made, or when the obligation is fulfilled fairly promptly, or at least by the time the speech is reported. Ex : He said, ‘We really must do something about the weeds in this garden’. → He said that they had to do something about weeds in that garden. [Alexander, 1988, p286] Ex : ‘You must be in ten tonight’, his parents told him. → His parents told him that he must/had to be in ten that night. [Quirk, 1985, p1032] Would have to would be possible here also but would imply that the obligation was self – imposed and that no outside authority was involved. “Had to” could express either an outside authority (i.e. that someone had told him to be there) or a self – imposed obligation. 37
38. All difficulties about had to / would have to can of course be avoided by keeping must unchanged. In both the above examples must could have been used instead of had to / would have to. (3). You / he / they must is reported similarly : Ex : ‘You must collect more data’, he said. → He said that she must/had to/would have to collect more data. [Hewings, 2002, p99] But note that would have to removes the idea of the speaker’s authority. Ex : Tom said, ‘If you want to stay on here you must work harder’. → Tom said that if she wanted to stay on there she must/would have to work harder. [Thomson, 1985, p287] Must implies that Tom himself insists on her working hard. Would have to merely implies that this will be necessary. (4). Must I / you / he? Can change similarly but as must in the interrogative usually concerns the present or immediate future it usually becomes had to. Ex : “Must you say something about it?” he asked me. → He asked me if I had to say something about it. [Graver, 1986, p45] (5). Must not I must not usually remains unchanged. You / he must not remains unchanged or is expressed as a negative command Ex : “You mustn’t tell my brother”, he said. → He said that she mustn’t tell his brother. Or He told her not to tell his brother. [Hewings, 2002, p98] II .2.3.3.1. Needn’t in indirect speech. Needn’t can remain unchanged and usually does. Alternatively it can change to didn’t have to / wouldn’t have to just as must changes to had to / would have to : 38
39. Ex : ‘You needn’t come in tomorrow’, the boss said. → The boss said I needn’t/didn’t have to come in the next day. [Alexander, 1988, p292] Need I / you / he? behaves exactly in the same ways as must I/you/he? i.e. normally becomes had to. Ex : “Need you go to school tomorrow?’ I asked him. → I asked him if he had to go to school the following day. [www.english-for-students.com/DirecttoIndirectSpeech.html] II .3. Changes in use of pointer words II .3.1. Changes of pronouns and possessive adjectives II .3.1.1. Pronouns and possessive adjectives usually change from first or second to third person except when the speaker is reporting his own words. Ex : ‘I had studied French for four years at school’, I said. → I said that I had studied French for four years at school. [Quirk, 1985, p1027] (The speaker reporting his own words) The following table will show exactly how pronoun and possessive adjectives change. Direct → Indirect speech I → He/She me → him/her my → his/her Mine → his/hers We → They us → them our → their Ours → theirs You → you → your → Yours → He/She/They him/her/them his/her/their his/her/theirs [Alexander, 1988, p290] Ex : “I bring my book everyday”, he said, “the book on the desk is mine”. → He said that he brought his book everyday and the book on the desk was his. And “We bring our book everyday”, they said, the books on the desk are ours. → They said that they brought their book everyday and the books on the desk were theirs. [Eckersley, 1960, p363] 39
40. Sometimes, a noun must be inserted to avoid ambiguity : Tom said, ‘He came in through the window’ would not normally be reported Tom said he had come in through the window as this might imply that Tom himself had come in this way; but if we use a noun there can be no confusion : Tom said that the man / burglar / cat etc. had come in through the window. Moreover, Pronoun changes may affect the verb : Ex : He says, ‘I know her’. → He says he knows her. He says, ‘I shall be there’. → He says he will be there. [Thomson, 1985, p273] II .3.1.2. Changes of this and these in indirect speech This used in time expressions usually become that. Ex : ‘Let’s go to the cinema this evening’, he said. → He suggested going to the cinema that evening. [Graver, 1986, p45] Otherwise, this and that used as adjectives often change to the. Ex : ‘I gave this book/these books to Ann yesterday’, he said. → He said that he had given the book/books to Ann the day before. [www.english-the-international-language.com/repsp.html] Furthermore, this, these used as pronouns can become it, they / them. Ex : She said, “I’ll do this tomorrow”. → She said that she would do it the next day. [www.eslbase.com/grammar/reported-speech] Lastly, this, these (adjectives or pronouns) used to indicate choice or to distinguish some things from others, can be become the one(s) near him, etc. or the statement can be reworded. Ex : “I’ll have this (one)”, he said to me. → He said he would have the one near him. Or He pointed to / touched / showed me the one he wanted. [Thomson, 1985, p274] 40
41. II .3.2. Changes of expressions of time and place in indirect speech It is often necessary to make time and place changes in relation to tense changes. For example, on Tuesday, Ann says: “A card came yesterday saying Sue will arrive tomorrow”. Bob, reporting this on Wednesday, might say : Ann told me that a card had come the day before yesterday / on Monday saying Sue would arrive today / on Wednesday. A change of place and time may mean a change of words like here, this, now, today or words denoting “nearness” become the corresponding words denoting remoteness. There are the concrete cases of changing time and place in indirect speech. II .3.2.1. Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time change as follows Direct speech Indirect speech Now → then / immediately Today → that day Tonight → that night Yesterday → the day before / the pervious day Last night → the night before The day before yesterday / two days go → two day before / earlier Tomorrow → the next / the following day The day after tomorrow → in two day’s time Next week / year → the following week / year Last week / year → the pervious week / year A year etc. ago → a year before / the previous year [Alexander, 1988, p291] Ex : “I spoke to them yesterday”, he said. → He said that he had spoken to them the day before. [Eckersley, 1960, p363] “I shall do it now”, he said. → He said that he would do it then. [Quirk, 1973, p341] 41
42. But, if the speech is made and reported on the same day, these time changes are not necessary. Ex : At breakfast this morning he said, ‘I’ll be very busy to day’. → At breakfast this morning he said that he would be very busy today. [Thomson, 1985, p275] Additionally, logical adjustments are necessary if a speech is reported one/two days after it is made. The following example will illustrate what is said. On Monday Jack said to Tom : ‘I’m leaving the day after tomorrow’. If Tom reports this speech on the next day (Tuesday) he will probably say : Jack said he was leaving tomorrow. If he reports it on Wednesday, he will probably say : Jack said he was leaving today. [Thomson, 1985, p275] II .3.2.2. Adverbs and adverbial phrases of place change as follow Direct speech Indirect speech Here → there This place → that place These places → those places [Alexander, 1988, p291] Ex : “I saw the boy here in this room today”, he said. → He said that he had seen the boy there in that room that day. [Eckersley, 1960, p364] Particularly, here can become there but only when it is clear what place is meant. Ex : At the factory she asked her friend, ‘How long have you worked here?’. → She asked her friend how long he had worked there. [www.learnenglish.de/grammar/reportedspeech.htm] Usually here has to be replaced by some phrase. Ex : Peter and Susan were at the cinema. Susan said, ‘You can sit here, Peter’. → She told Peter to sit next to her. But, He said, ‘Come here, boy’ would normally reported He called the boy. [Thomson, 1985, p275] 42
43. II .3.3. Position of what, who and which in indirect speech II .3.3.1. Question words in indirect speech II .3.3.1.1. Interrogative use. The words who, whom, whose, which, what, when, where, why, and how are used in questions to show what kind of information is wanted. Who said that? (asking for a personal subject). What did she want? (asking for a non – personal object). When will it be ready? (asking for time expression). Why are they laughing? (asking for a reason). [Eckersley, 1960, p364] Who and whom are pronouns and act as subject or object in direct question. While as, when, where, why and how act as adverbs. And What, which and whose can be pronouns or determiners. Compare : What do you want? (pronoun) and What sort do you want? (determiner). Which is mine? (pronoun) and Which coat is mine? (determiner). Whose is the red car? (pronoun) and Whose coat is this? (determiner). II .3.3.1.2. Word order and structure in indirect questions. Question words normally come at the beginning of the questions. When who, which, what or whose is the subject (or part of the subject), the question word comes before the verb, and do can’t normally be used. Ex : Who is in charge here? [Alexander, 1988, p296] But do can be used after a subject question word for emphasis, to insist on an answer. Additionally, when a question word is the object, do is also used. Ex : Who do you want to speak to? Where did you live 20 years ago? What do you think? [Swam, 1989, p475] 43
44. II .3.3.2. Position of question words in indirect speech. As I mentioned above “wh” – questions are the questions in which someone asks for information about an event or situation. Question word questions can not be answered with “yes” or “no” when we report a question word questions we use a question word at the beginning of the reported clause. That means question words like who, what, which, why and how become connective features in indirect questions. Ex : “What is her name?” he asked me. → He asked me what her name was. “Where are you going?” he asked her. → He asked her where she was going. “Why do they go to Paris so often?”. → He asked me why they went to Paris so often. [Eckersley, 1960, p367] When we report questions constructed with who / what / which / why + be + complement, can be put before or after the complement. Ex : “Who is the best player here?” she asked. → She asked me who was the best player there. Or she asked me who the best player was there. [Swam, 1989, p504] II .3.4. Noun clause as object – reported clause in indirect speech. In each of the following clauses, the object of the verb consists of a clause, not a NP. Ex : There they told us [the bus service did not start until July 1st]. A S P Oi Od = Ncl I think he said that. S P O = Ncl I felt that someone was following me. S V O = Ncl [Freeborn, 1987, p188] 44
45. The verb told, think and felt are semantically all mental or verbal process verbs and in these sentences they are followed by a Ncl which functions like an object of verb, where we might except a Nph. Ex : There they told us the lasted news. I think of the day we first met. I felt someone following me. [Freeborn, 1987, p188] The Ncls are a kind of report, which informs us what was told / felt and thought. Some linguists call the verbs reporting verbs, which are the predicators of reporting clauses and the Ncl objects in the clauses are then called reported clauses. Speech presented like this can then be called reported speech. (This is traditionally called indirect speech, because the actual words of the speaker are not quoted directly as in direct speech). [Eckersley, 1960, p188] As we mention at the beginning of this chapter, the reporting clause is a main clause and the reported Ncl is a subordinate clause in their grammatical relationship with each other. The reporting – reported clause construction is extremely common in narrative as in the following examples in which that marks the reported Ncl. The marker that is simply a function word, and is not part of the structure of the clause (unlike that when used as a relative pronoun). Ex : I wish (that) I were at the beach now. [Frank, 1986, p292] Clauses beginning with a wh – word also function as reported clause, as in : I don’t know [what they are doing] Wh – Ncl = reported clause. In which the wh – clause is the report of what was seen, which is in the form of a question. Wh – clauses like this can be derived from interrogative clauses. This sentence : “What is that gun firing for?” said Boxer. is an example of direct speech. This sentence in the text contains a quoting clause, said Boxer and 45
46. a quoted clause, what is that gun firing for?. It might have been written in reporting – reported form as Boxer asked [what the gun was firing for] Wh – Ncl = reported clause [Freeborn, 1987, p190]  Omission of that In informal speech, that is frequently omitted from object clause if the meaning is clear with it. Ex : He said (that) he was a student and had studies for 3 years. [Allen, 1962, p255] A sentence may contain a succession of object clause from which that is omitted. Notice that it is possible to reverse the order of reporting reported clause only when that is omitted. Ex : He refused to meddle in such matters, Benjamin said. Or : He refused to meddle in such matters, said Benjamin. [Freeborn, 1987, p189] That may also be omitted from clauses after predicate adjectives. Ex : It’s not certain (that) she can help us. [Frank, 1986, p291] Sometimes, that is omitted informally from clauses functioning as predicate nouns. Ex : The truth is (that) plants need water in order to grow. [ ] Care must be taken that when a that clause has a long introductory modifier, the word that is not repeated before the subject of the clause. Ex : The doctor told his patient that when she had another attack of asthma, that she was to call him immediately. [Frank, 1986, p291] 46
47. In this sentence, the second that is superfluous. A verb of indirect speech or of mental activity may be inserted parenthetically without that in what would normally be its noun clause object. Ex : This, he tells me, is the only solution. (= He tells me (that) this is the only solution.) Mr. Jones, I understand, is a multimillionaire. (= I understand (that) Mr. Jones is a multimillionaire.) [Frank, 1986, p291] Note : That can not be omitted after certain verbs (reply, shout, etc.), and it is not usually omitted after nouns. Ex : I replied that I did not intend to stand for election. (Not I replied I didn’t intend ) She shouted that she was busy. (Not she shouted she was busy) [Swam, 1989, p502] II .4. Mixed types in indirect speech Direct speech may consist of statement + question, question + command, command + statement, or all three together. Normally, each requires its own introductory verb. For example, when statement and question are mixed, each section must be introduced by appropriate verb, namely : tell, say, explain, remark etc. for statement only; ask, enquire, want to know, wonder for question only. A useful connective device for question plus statement is “adding that”. Ex : He said, “I’m off to the pictures. Where are you going?” → He said he was off to the pictures and wanted to know where I was going. [Allen, 1962, p267] “I’m on my way to the market”, she said. “Do you want to come with me?” → She said she was on her way to the market and invited me to come with her. But sometimes, when the last clause is a statement which helps to explain the first, we can use as instead of a second introductory verb. 47
48. Ex : “You had better wear a coat. It’s very cold outside”, he said. → He advised me to wear a coat as it was very cold outside. [Thomson, 1985, p285] “Don’t walk on the ice”, Jane said. “It’s not safe”. → Jane warned us not to walk on the ice as it wasn’t safe. [www.english-for-students.com/DirecttoIndirectSpeech.html] And, sometimes the second introductory verb can be a participle : Ex : ‘Let’s shop on Friday. The supermarket will be very crowded on Saturday’, she said. She suggested shopping on Friday, pointing out that the supermarket would be very crowed on Saturday. [Thomson, 1985, p286] II .5. Free indirect speech Free indirect speech is a half – way stage between direct and indirect speech and is used extensively in narrative writing. It is basically a form of indirect speech, but (1) the reporting clause is omitted (except when retained as parenthetical comment clause), and (2) the potentialities of direct speech sentence structure are retained (direct questions and exclamations, vocatives, tag questions, etc.). Therefore, it is only the back – shift of the verb, together with equivalent shifts in pronouns, determiners and time and place references, that signal the fact that the words are being reported, rather than being in direct speech. The italicized verbs in the example below are back – shift to the past tense. Ex : So that was their plan, was it? He well knew their tricks, and would show them a thing or two before he was finished. Thank goodness he had been alerted, and that there were still a few honest people in the world. [Quirk, 1973, p344] Very often, in fiction, free indirect speech represents a person’s stream of thought rather than actual speech. It is quite possible, therefore, that he thought would be the appropriate reporting clause to supply for the above passage, rather than he said. 48
49. II .6. Transferred negation There are several ways in which ‘indirect speech’ involving mental activity verbs (he thought, etc.) differs from that where the reporting verb is one of language activity (he said, etc.). A very important difference involves negation; thus, while both clauses can be made independently negative with say, etc. Ex : He did not say that Mary was pretty. He said that Mary was not pretty . [Quirk, 1973, p344] (so that these two sentences are sharply different in meaning), it is usual with think, believe, suppose, imagine, expect, etc. for a super ordinate negative to apply also in the subordinate clause. For this reason, the following pairs of sentences would normally be regarded as virtually synonymous : (a). I don’t believe I’ve met you before (b). I believe I haven’t met you before. (a). I don’t suppose he has paid yet. (b). I suppose he hasn’t paid yet. (a). She didn’t imagine that we would say anything. (b). She imagined we wouldn’t say anything. (a). He didn’t expect to win. (b). He expected not to win. [Quirk, 1985, p1033] The transfer of the negation can be seen clearly in the (b). above, with the non – assertive yet appearing in the subordinate clause even when the verb in this clause is not negated. Another indication is the form of the tag question in : I don’t suppose (that) he cares, does he? [~ I suppose (that) he doesn’t care, does he?] The tag question in this sort of sentence is attached to the subordinate clause rather than to the independent clause, as is clear from the tag subject, he. And the use of the positive tag question with a falling tone is another indicate that subordinate clause is under the scope of negation. 49
50. CHAPTER 3 : ERRORS OFTEN MADE BY VIETNAMESE LEARNERS & SOME SUGGESTION. Mastering English is the aim of every learner. However, in the process of studying, marking mistakes is unavoidable. In this chapter, I would like to point out some common errors often made by Vietnamese learners and suggest some solutions to correct them. III .1. Errors in changing the direct into indirect speech. III .1.1. Errors with the punctuation marks When learners change direct questions into indirect questions they still put question mark at the end of the indirect questions. Let’s look the example : Ex : He asked me, ‘Are you tired?’ (1) → He asked me if I was tired? (2) → He asked me if I was tired. Easily to find out that the changing in the first sentence is incorrect because of keeping the question mark at the end the indirect question. The correct changing is in the second sentence. Suggestions: To avoid this error, Vietnamese learners should pay more attention to the form of indirect questions and learn by heart the rule of using punctuation marks in indirect questions. III .1.2. Errors with the word orders in indirect questions As I mentioned above, when we change direct questions into indirect questions there is a change in word order. The inversion in the direct question changes back to statement word order. The auxiliaries disappear in indirect questions. But in fact many learners make mistakes in this point. Ex : ‘Where is my hat?’ She asked him. Incorrect → She asked him where was her hat. Correct → She asked him where her hat was. Ex : ‘When will the plane leave?’ I wondered. Incorrect → I wondered when would the plane leave. Correct → I wondered when the plane would leave. 50
51. Suggestions: Learners should take care of the word order when changing from the direct to indirect question, especially should note the position of subject, verb, and auxiliary in the indirect question. III .1.3. Errors with tense changes Ex : She said, ‘My parents are very well.’ (1) → She said that her parents are very well. (2) → She said that her parents were very well. Learners often make this errors because in Vietnamese there is no form of tense changes of verbs. So, in this point, learners are always confused when they change the direct speech into indirect speech. Thus, in the example above, a lot of learners often back – shift as the first sentence, but the second one is a correct answer. Suggestion: It is important to note that the form of verb tense will be changed when we back – shift into indirect speech. So, learners should learnt by heart not only common but also special rules of tense changes. III .1.4. Errors with changes of pointer words Errors with changes of pronouns and possessive adjectives, particularly with changes of expressions of time and place in indirect sentence usually occur when learners back – shift. For example : Ms. Adams just asked, “Will you be here tomorrow?”. In stead of changing into She wanted to know I would be there next day, many learners still change to She wanted to know I would be here tomorrow. The reason for this error is that learners make mistake or less pay attention to pointer words. Suggestion: Learning by heart all changing rules of pointer words should be practiced day by day (cases of changing time and place in indirect speech, changes of pronouns and possessive adjectives, changes of this and these, etc.) 51
52. III .2. Errors in changing indirect speech into direct speech III .2.1. Errors with punctuation marks When the quotation ends with an exclamation mark or a question mark, a comma is not used as well. But sometimes, learners still use the comma by mistake. Ex : Incorrect → ‘What a surprise!’, John exclaimed. Correct → ‘What a surprise!’ John exclaimed. Ex : Incorrect → “where is Julie?”, James asked. Correct → “where is Julie?” James asked. Especially, many learners still use capital letter to begin the second part of the quotation – sentence in which subject + reporting verb are in the middle. That is incorrect because it is not a separate sentence. But, capital letter is used only when following the full stop (.) of the first quotation mark. Ex : Incorrect → “Where, in this wretched town,” John asked, “Can I get a taxi?” Correct → “Where, in this wretched town,” John asked, “can I get a taxi?” Correct → “Where, in this wretched town,” John asked. “Can I get a taxi?” Suggestion: With this error, only when distinguishing between punctuation marks used in indirect speech and in direct speech, learning by heart carefully all rules of punctuation marks in direct speech as well, can learners avoid this mistake. Especially, when subject + reporting verb are in the middle of sentence, learners should mention to letter to begin the second quotation part for which case capital letter is used. III .2.2. Errors with the word orders When changing indirect into direct speech, few learners make errors with word order. Ex : He asked if I liked fish. Incorrect → He asked me, “You like fish?” Correct → He asked me, “Do you like fish?” 52
53. Suggestion : Learners should pay more attention to position of elements in direct sentences. III .2.3. Errors with tense changes This error often occurs in changing indirect into direct speech because of interference of the mother tongue. For instance, He said that he liked England. The changing is incorrect if that is → He said, “I liked England”. But it is → He said, “I like England”. Suggestion : This error doesn’t happen if learners mention to tenses in direct speech. III .2.4. Errors with changes of pointer words The cause of this error happens similarly with ones above. Ex : He said that he would come to England the next week. If learners back – shift into → He said, ‘I will come England the next week’. That is wrong answer. The correct is → He said, ‘I will come England next week’. Suggestion : Therefore, my suggestion for this problem is that learners also get a good hold of the changing rules of pointer words from indirect to direct speech. III .3. Common suggestions Here are common errors when learners change from direct to indirect speech, and vice versa. Hence, I would like to suggest some solutions for learners. Firstly, learners should pay more attention on the background theories of direct and indirect speech and their forms as well, particularly learn by heart the rules for changing direct into indirect speech because of its importance. Secondly, learners should practice more by doing exercises of direct and indirect speech often. By that way it is not difficult to avoid those mistakes. Besides, teachers of English would give advice as well as guide for learners to change direct into indirect speech effectively. Lastly, I hope that, this study will help learners understand and know how to change them well. 53
54. CONCLUSION Direct and indirect speech are popularly used in almost all fields of English both in grammar & semantics. They play an important role in retransmitting information to the hearers exactly and widely. Direct speech is mainly used in written language, while as indirect speech is often used in spoken language. In fact, ether direct or indirect speech can be used to repeat the original speaker’s exact words. However, in the learning process, Vietnamese learners often face with the problems caused by direct and indirect speech, particularly changes from direct to indirect speech. So, to help learners of English understand and use direct and indirect speech effectively, in this study, they are discussed along with their common features, basic forms and semantic functions. And, a quirk overview of changing from direct to indirect speech is also discussed in the chapter I to help learners have further understand about them. Particularly, the most important purpose that my study directs toward is giving out changes from direct to indirect speech through three main ways: changes of clause types, verb forms and pointer words; together with three other ways: transferred negation, mixed types & free in direct speech. In each case of changing, this study supplied the analysis, common rules as well as examples to illustrate. Furthermore, to help learners overcome the confusion and difficulties in the process of changing direct to indirect speech, common errors are mentioned in this graduation paper so that learners can realize those mistakes and correct their shortcomings as well as possible. In short, I have summed up what presented in my graduation paper with the hope that it will be useful for all language learners. Because of the limitation of time, knowledge and ability, my study can’t avoid mistakes. However, I hope the subject will be further studied and its result will be applied in the process of learning and teaching English. For instance, there is a study about direct and indirect speech in both English and Vietnamese or a study about direct and indirect speech application to study of journalistic style, etc. 54
55. REFERENCES 1. Alexander, L. G. (1988). Longman English Grammar. Longman Group U. K. Ltd. 2. Allen, W. S. (1962). A practice book for foreign students. Longman, Green and Co. 3. Cobuild, C. (1990). English Grammar. Collin Birmigham University. 4. Eckersley, C. E and Eckersley, J. M. (1960). Comprehensive English Grammar. Longman Green and Co. Ltd. 5. Frank, M. (1986). Modern English a practical reference guide. Prentice – Hall – INC – Englewood CHfs, New Jersey. 6. Freeborn, D. A. (1987). A course book in English Grammar. Macmillan Education. 7. Graver, B. D. (1986). Advanced English Practice. Oxford University Press. 8. Hartley, B and Viney, P. R. (2005). Streamline English Connection. Oxford University Press. 9. Hewings, M. (2002). Advanced Grammar in Use. NXB Tre. 10. Murphy, R. (1998). English Grammar in Use. NXB Da Nang. 11. Murphy, R. (2000). English Grammar in Use. NXB Thanh Nien. 12. Quirk, R and Green Baum, S. (1973). A University Grammar of English. (Workbook). NXB Giao Thong Van Tai. 13. Quirk, R. et al. (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar Of The English Language. Longman Group Ltd. 14. Swam, M. (1989). Practical English Usage. Oxford University Press. 15. Thomson, A. J and Martinet, A. V. (1985). A Practical English Grammar. NXB Da Nang. 16. Yule, G. (1998). Explaining English Grammar. Oxford University Press. 17. eeh.htm 55
56. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. speech 23. m/the-difference-between-direct-and-indirect-speech 24. 25. 56
57. APPENDIX Exercise 1 Complete the sentences to report what was said. Use appropriate verb tenses and make other changes you think are necessary. The original statements were all made last week. Example: ‘John left here an hour ago.’ → She told me that John had left (or left) there an hour before. 1. ‘Jim’s arriving at our house tomorrow.’ → She told me 2. ‘I shall be extremely interested to see the results.’ → He said 3. ‘You don’t like Italian food, do you?’ → She wanted to know 4. The Policemen said to us, “Where are you going?” → The Policemen asked us 5. He said, “Will you listen to such a man?” → He asked them 6. Alice said, “How clever I am?” → Alice exclaimed that 7. I said, ‘If you can lend me the money I needn’t go to the bank. → I said that 8. ‘Someone’s coming’, he said. ‘Get behind the screen’. → He said that 9. The teacher said, ‘It’s high time you wrote it down’. → The teacher told me 10. “What were you doing where I phoned you yesterday”, Joe asked Marry. → Joe asked Marry Exercise 2: Choose the correct answer 1. Rosa asked Jose, “Have you been studying English very long?” A. Rosa asked Jose when do you study English B. Rosa asked Jose if he had studied English. 57
58. C. Rosa asked Jose if he had been studying English very long. D. Rosa asked Jose if he was studying English very long. 2. Sara asked me, “May I borrow your English dictionary?” A. Sara asked me if she may borrow my English dictionary. B. Sara asked me if she could borrow my English dictionary. C. Sara asked me if I could borrow her English dictionary. D. Sara asked me if I had borrowed her English dictionary. 3. Monica Cheng asked Roes, “Are you going to visit Cambodia?” A. Monica Cheng asked Roes if he is going to visit Cambodia. B. Monica Cheng asked Roes if he had visited Cambodia. C. Monica Cheng asked Roes if he had gone to Cambodia. D. Monica Cheng asked Roes if he was going to visit Cambodia. 4. The teacher said, “Study chapters 1-4 for the final test!” A. The teacher told us to study chapters 1-4 for the final test. B. The teacher asked us if we studied chapters 1-4 for the final test. C. The teacher said us to study chapters 1-4 for the final test. D. The teacher asked to us to study chapters 1-4 for the final test. 5. Anne said, “Don't listen to Mr. Bacon because he is not an honest person!” A. Anne asked to us not to listen to Mr. Bacon because he is not an honest person. B. Anne said that Mr. Bacon is not an honest person. C. Anne said not to listen to Mr. Bacon because he is not an honest person. D. Anne told to us to don't listen to Mr. Bacon because he is not an honest person. 6. Olen said to Martha, “You should visit Russia in the summer.” A. Olen asked Martha if she was visiting Russia in the summer. B. Olen told Martha that she should visit Russia in the summer. C. Olen told Martha to her if she should visit Russia in the summer. 58
59. D. Olen asked Martha where she should visit in Russia this summer. 7. “What did she say?” A. He asked me what did she say. B. He asked me what she said. C. He asked me what she had said. D. He asked me what had she said. 8. “What color are you selecting?” A. Would you tell me what color you are selecting. B. Would you tell me what are you selecting color. C. Would you tell me what color are you selecting. 9. “How many times have you seen that movie?” A. He asked me how many times have I seen that movie. B. He asked me how many times I have seen that movie. C. He asked me how many times I had seen that movie. 10.“Where did you buy that book?” A. I would love to know where he bought that book. B. I would love to know where he did buy that book. C. I would love to know where he had bought that book. D. I would love to know where had he bought that book. Key to exercises Exercise 1: 1. She told me that Jim was (or would be) arriving at their house the next (or the following) day. 2. He said that he would be extremely interested to see the results. 3. She wanted to know if/whether I like (or we like) Italian food. 4. The Policemen asked us where we were going. 5. He asked them whether they would listen to such a man. 6. Alice exclaimed that he was very clever. 7. I said that if he could lend me the money I needn’t/wouldn’t have to go to the bank. 59
60. 8. He said that someone was coming and told me to get behind the screen. 9. The teacher told me it was high time I wrote it down. 10.Joe asked Marry what she was doing when he phoned her the day before. Exercise 2 : 1. C 6. B 2. B 7. C 3. D 8. A 4. A 9. C 5. C 10. C 60