Khóa luận A study on english nominal clause and vietnamese equivalence - Tran Thi Thuy Hang

Nội dung text: Khóa luận A study on english nominal clause and vietnamese equivalence - Tran Thi Thuy Hang

1. HAIPHONG PRIVATE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF FORGEIN LANGUAGES ISO 9001: 2000 GRADUATION PAPER A STUDY ON ENGLISH NOMINAL CLAUSE AND VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENCE By: Tran Thi Thuy Hang Class: NA904 Supervisor: NGUYEN THI PHI NGA, M.A HAIPHONG – JUNE 2009
2. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowlegement Table of contents PART I: INTRODUCTION 1. Rationale of the study 1 2. Study restriction 2 3. Research method 3 4. Research beneficiary 3 PART II: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 1. Clause and type of clause 4 1.1 Definitions of clause 4 1.2 Types of clause 4 1.2.1 Main clause 4 1.2.2 Subordinate clauses 5 2. Understanding of English nominal clause 2.1 Definitions 5 2.2 Classifications 7 2.2.1Classification according to structure 7 2.2.1.1 Finite clause 7 2.2.1.1.1 That-clause 7 2.2.1.1.Wh-interrogative clause 8 2.2.1.1.3Yes/no interrogative clause 8 2.2.1.1 Nominal relative clause 8
3. 2.2.1.2 Non-finite clause 8 2.2.1.2.1To-infinitive clause 8 2.2.1.2.2 Bare infinitive clause 9 2.2.1.2.3Ing-participle clause 9 2.2.1.2.4 Ed-participle clause 9 2.2.2 Classification according to function 9 2.2.2.1 That-clause 9 2.2.2.2 Wh-interrogative clause 9 2.2.2.3 Yes/no interrogative clause 10 2.2.2.4 Nominal relative clause 10 2.2.2.5 To-infinitive clause 11 2.2.2.6 Bare infinitive clause 11 2.2.2.7 Ing-participle clause 11 2.2.2.8 Ed-participle clause 12 3. Understanding of nominal clause in Vietnamese 12 4. Concepts of translation equivalence 12 4.1 Definition of translation 12 4.2 Translation types 14 4.3 Equivalence in translation 16 4.3.1 Definition of equivalence 16 4.3.2 Types of equivalence 17 4.4 Non-equivalence in translation 20 4.4.1 Definitions 20 4.4.2 Common equivalence 20
4. 4.4.2.1 Culture specific concepts 21 4.4.2.2 The SL concept which is not lexicalized in TL 21 4.4.2.3 The SL work which is semantically complex 21 4.4.2.4 The SL and TL make different distinctions in meaning 21 4.4.2.5 The TL lacks a super-ordinate (or lack of general word) 22 4.4.2.6 The TL lacks a specific term (hyponym) 22 4.2.7 Differences in physical or interpersonal perspective 22 4.2.8 Difference in the expressive meaning 23 4.4.2.9 Differences in form 23 4.4.2.10 Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms 23 4.4.2.11 The use of loan words in the source text 23 CHAPTER II: English Nominal clause and Vietnamese equivalence 2.1 Nominal clause as Subject 24 2.1.1 That- clause 24 2.1.2 Wh-interrogative clause 25 2.1.3 Yes/no interrogative clause 26 2.1.4 Nominal relative clause 27 2.1.5 To-infinitive nominal clause 27 2.1.6 Bare infinitive nominal clause 28 2.1.7 Ing-participle nominal clause 29 2.2 Nominal clause as Object 29 2.2.1 Nominal clause as direct Object 29 2.2.2 Nominal clause as indirect Object 34 2.3 Nominal clause as Complement 35
5. 2.3.1 Nominal clause as Subject complement 35 2.3.2 Nominal clause as Object complement 38 2.3.3 Nominal clause as Adjective complement 39 2.3.4 Nominal clause as Preposition complement 42 2.4 Nominal clause as Appositive 44 CHAPTER III: Solutions for translating non-equivalence 48 PART III: CONCLUSION 53
6. Part I: Introduction 1. Rationale No one can deny the importance of language. Without language, how can people communicate each other? Language is considered to be a system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words in expressing a meaning, idea or thought and can be used in many forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using expressions through body language. People in any part of the world use language as a tool so that they can communicate, exchange opinions and enrich knowledge. Among more than six thousand and five hundred languages existing nowadays, English is one of the most popular languages and used as the common language all over the world. There are nearly one billion people speaking English and this number is rising quickly. English not only is considered an official language of many countries as England, American, Australia, Trinidad and Jamaica but also chosen as the second language in many countries as India, Ireland, Canada, and China Besides, English has become international language used in many fields such as world communication network and transportation, commerce, politics, education In Vietnam, English has been taught for long time ago. More and more people are learning English with the aims of widening their knowledge and getting a chance to find a good job. Specially, in current innovation time, English is regarded the key language in trading, banking, educating, information technology People who can use English in communicating and working can have many chances in finding a good job. Because of the importance of English understanding, translation has become a profession However, in the learning English process, not only new learners, but also English major students meet difficulties in grammar. Besides, now a day, teaching English grammar doesn’t focus on grammar base, but skill base. The
7. advantage of skill base is to help people communicate better. However, to do paper work or study more detail about grammar in translating process, people need to understand on English grammar clearly. Grammar is always challenging with learners. Many English speakers meet a lot of difficulties when they want to express their opinions and thinking because English has it own grammatical rule. It is easy to misunderstand when you understand basic grammar partly. The learners can learn and understand basic grammar in a short time, but the specific parts of grammar as relative clauses, dependent clauses, phrases, concord , it takes long time to study and put in to practice correctly. If only having deep understanding about grammar, learners can translate and transfer information and ideas from English to Vietnamese exactly. Besides, I realize the confusion of learners in translating process is in term of lacking comparative analysis between two languages. Special when contacting with nominal clause used by the English, many learners don’t understand the comparative analysis. Being a major English student and a translator to be, I would like to do something to help them learn English grammar and translation theory better. That is also the reason I choose the “The study on English nominal clause and Vietnamese equivalence” as the title of graduation paper. 2. Study restriction The clause matter is rather complex and there are different types of clause in English. We all know the dependent clause is important element in complex sentence. Because of the knowledge and time frame, I could not take a study on all related to subordinated clauses. English subordinate clauses are classified into four clauses, but in this study I only put nominal clauses into consideration. Also, I could not investigate all translations of English subordinate clauses into Vietnamese. Therefore, I just focus on translation of English nominal clause into Vietnamese equivalence.
8. 3. Research method From the beginning of studying English in university, I want to enrich myself with many fields as economy, politics, science, society, finance, culture I have tried to develop the paper. Not only rely on knowledge collected from the previous lectures of my teachers, I myself have collected and sorted the series of English nominal clause translation from several sources such as: Grammar books, references, specialist books used in the university, internet . Basing on that, I can analyze and explain its classification and function. Moreover, I analyze many useful examples from books, internet for clearness and focus on some areas where learners often make errors for finding suitable solutions. Documents for the research are selected from reliable sources on websites, such as www.learnenglish.de/grammar, 4. Research beneficiary As mentioned above, English learners and translators may get confused in the process of studying English, special English grammar. English nominal clause is grammatical area that makes learners misunderstand because of its large application and its difference equivalence with Vietnamese. So the researches that relate to grammar will help English learners, specially the second year English students in learning grammar and translation theory.
9. PART II: DEVELOPMENT Chapter I: Theoretical background 1. Clause and types of clause 1.1 Definitions of clause There are many definitions of clause which are written by many authors, we will consider some definitions of clause below. A clause is a group of word which form a grammatical unit and which contain a subject or no subject and a verb, part of a sentence and often function as a noun (nominal clause),an adverb (adverbial clause) or part of a phrase and often function as an adjective (adjective clause). Like a phrase, a clause is a group of related words, but unlike a phrase, a clause has a subject and predicate (Wikipedia) A clause is a part of a sentence. There are two main types: independent (main clauses), dependent (subordinate clauses). Clause includes a subject and a finite verb 1.2 Types of clause There are two main types: independent (main clauses), dependent (subordinate clauses). 1.2.1 Main clause. An independent clause is a complete sentence; it contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought in both context and meaning. Ex: The door opened A group of words made up of a subject and a predicate. A main clause (unlike a dependent clause) can stand alone as a sentence. Ex: “I can believe anything, provided that it is quite incredible” (Oscar Wilde)
10. Independent clauses can be joined by a coordinating conjunction to form complex or compound sentences (and, or, yet, but, nor, for, so) Ex: The door opened and the man walked in Every main clause will follow this pattern: [Subject + verb = complete thought.] Ex: The pupils were talking noisily when the teacher came in 1.2.2 Subordinate clauses A dependent (subordinate) clause is part of a sentence; it contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. They can make sense on their own, but, they are dependent on the rest of the sentence for context and meaning. They are usually joined to an independent clause to form a complex sentence. Dependent clauses often begin with a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun (see below) that makes the clause unable to stand alone. Ex: The door opened because the man pushed it. A group of words that has both a subject and a verb but (unlike an independent clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence. Subordinate clauses include adverb clauses and adjective clauses. A subordinate clause will follow this pattern: [Subordinate conjunction + subject + verb = incomplete thought.] Ex: She stays at home because her mother was ill Dependent clauses can be nominal, adverbial or adjectival 2. Understanding of English Nominal clause 2.1 Definitions Nominal clause is just as noun phrases may occur as subject, object, of adjective) It depends on [what happens next] (The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar, Sylvia Chalker and Edmund Weiner)
11. A noun complement, appositive, and prepositional complement, so every Nominal clause may occur in some or all of these roles. But the occurrence of nominal clauses is limited by the fact that they are normally abstract such as they refer to events, facts, states, ideas, etc”, (Randolph Quirk Sidney Greenbaum. 314, 315) The clause is doing the same work as the noun, so it is called a noun clause (L.G.Alexander, Longman English Grammar. 1992:13) Nominal clauses, other than nominal relative clauses, tend to be abstract in meaning. A nominal clause can be a subject, object, or complement in sentence structure. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or object of the preposition. Some words that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, why, whom, what, how, when, whoever, where, and whomever. Notice that some of these words also introduce adjective and adverbial clauses. To check whether a clause is a noun clause, try substituting the appropriate pronoun (he, she, it, or they). Ex: I know who said that. (I know it.) Whoever said it is wrong. (He is wrong.) Sometimes a noun clause is used without the introductory word. Nominal clauses function as nouns and may be replaced with a pronoun. Like a noun, a nominal clause names a person, place, thing, or idea. A nominal clause may function in a sentence as a subject, subjective complement, appositive, object of preposition, direct object or indirect object. ( A nominal clause (noun clause) functions like a noun or noun phrase. It is a group of words containing a subject and a finite verb of its own and contains one of the following: that | if | whether. Noun clauses answer questions like “who(m)?” or “what?” For example: I wondered whether the homework was necessary. (
12. In conclusion, nominal clause is a subordinate clause that functions as noun phrase. 2.2 Classifications Nominal clause can be classified according to structure and syntactic function. 2.2.1 Classification according to structure According to structural classification, nominal clause can be classified in two classes: Finite and non-finite Nominal clause 2.2.1.1 Finite clause Finite clause is clause whose verb element is a finite verb phrase. (Quirk. 1997:3.23) Finite nominal clause includes: That clause, Wh-interrogative clause, Yes-no interrogative clause and Nominal relative clause. Finite nominal clause is constructed mainly by these following constructions: 1) That + S + V 2) Question Word (+ S )+ V Question words: who, when, where, what, why, how 3) Whether/if + S + V 2.2.1.1.1. That clause [“That + subject + bare infinitive” or “that + subject + should + bare infinitive”] “That clause” is a type of nominal subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction “that” “That-clauses” are those with finite verb form and begin with “that”
13. These nominal that-clauses can be easily distinguished from relative clauses introduced by that by trying to replace that by “which” or “who”. Ex: That she loves you is certain 2.2.1.1.2 Wh-interrogative clause “Wh-interrogative clauses” are those begin with Wh words and are considered as indirect question Ex: What makes you get angry is too simple 2.2.1.1.3 Yes/no – interrogative clause Like “Wh-interrogative clause”, Yes/no – interrogative clause are those that begin with whether/if Ex: Whether he will come or not troubles her 2.2.1.1.4 Nominal relative clause Nominal relative clauses are those that begin with Wh words but can be paraphrased by a noun phrase with a relative clause as post modifier Ex: I will ask whatever I don’t understand 2.2.1.2 Non-finite clause Non-finite clause is also clause whose verb element is a non-finite verb phrase (Quirk.1997:309) Non-finite clause includes: To-infinitive clause, Bare-infinitive clause, Ing- participle clause and Ed-participle clause 2.2.1.2.1 To-infinitive clause To-infinitive clauses are those that begin with to-infinitive verb Ex: She wants to buy some stamps
14. 2.2.1.2.2 Bare-infinitive clause Bare-infinitive clauses are those that begin with Bare-infinitive verb Ex: She made me cry 2.2.1.2.3 Ing-participle clause Ing-participle clause is those that begin with Ing-participle verb Ex: Telling lies is wrong 2.2.1.2.4 Ed-participle clause Ed-participle clauses are those that begin with Ed-participle verb Ex: Will you have my car washed? 2.2.2 Classification according to function Nominal clause can be a subject, subject complement, direct object, indirect object, object complement, prepositional complement and appositive 2.2.2.1 That clause This can function as subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive and adjectival complement. Subject: That she is late is not surprising Direct object: I can see that she is right Subject complement: They are that I expect Appositive: My decision - that I must go - is correct Adjective complement: I am afraid that he can’t swim 2.2.2.2 Wh-interrogative clause This can function as subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive,
15. adjectival complement and prepositional complement. Subject: Why you did that is still a mystery Direct object: No one tell me who broke my car Subject complement: The question is where Mary is Appositive: Their wishes - how they can be more beautiful - never become true Adjectival complement: I am unbelievable how he can solve it Prepositional complement: They argued about when they made a cake 2.2.2.3 Yes/no interrogative clause This can function as subject, subject complement, direct object, appositive, adjective complement and prepositional complement. Subject: Whether he can do the job is a question Subject complement: The question is whether he can do the job Direct object: I don’t know if it is raining Appositive: The destiny - whether he dies or not - is hard to answer Prepositional complement: They talk about whether or not she cried 2.2.2.4 Nominal relative clause This type of nominal clause, introduced by a wh-element, can act as subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, object complement, appositive, prepositional complement. Subject: What he is looking for is a new friend Direct object: I will ask whatever I don’t understand Indirect object: He gave whoever came to the door a wining smile
16. Subject complement: Home is where I live Object complement: You can call him whatever you like Appositive: Turkey - what I like - is very easy to cook Prepositional complement: Your fate depends on whatever you do 2.2.2.5 To-infinitive clause These can act as subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive, adjectival complement. Subject: To be a good man is not simple Direct object: He likes every one to be happy Subject complement: Their plan is to escape from here Appositive: His ambition - to be a movie star - was never fulfilled Adjectival complement: I am glad to help you 2.2.2.6 Bare - infinitive clause This can function as Subject, Subject complement and object complement Subject: Kill him is the only way Subject complement: My dream is become a teacher Object complement: She made me cry 2.2.2.7 Ing-participle clause This can function as Subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive, prepositional complement and adjective complement Subject: Teaching him is difficult task Direct object: I love eating ice cream Subject complement: My dream is travelling to Japan
17. Appositive: Their duty - staying here forever - made me feel sorry Prepositional complement: I am tired of working so hard Adjective complement: I am ready following him 2.2.2.8 Ed-participle clause This can function as Object complement Object complement: Will you have my dress repaired next week? 3. Understanding of Nominal clause in Vietnamese Nominal clause in Vietnamese is not popular. The Vietnamese grammar does not care much about nominal clauses, especially in speaking and writing style. Even, there is no concept of relative clauses or nominal clauses in Vietnamese. For examples, the Vietnamese often says: “Chỗ nó ở đẹp thật”, and in English equivalence can be “Where he lives is beautiful”, or “Tôi không biết cô ấy sống ở đâu” – “I don’t know where she lives”. Vietnamese grammar focus on sentence and syntax, but does not focus on clauses. Because of differences in grammar and the way of speaking, so nominal clause in Vietnamese is still vague concept. 4. Concepts of Translation equivalence 4.1 Definitions of translation We can never know how many languages man uses today in the world. Since communication within only one speech community is not enough, certainly there has a great number of times arisen a situation in which some individuals are unable to understand the words of expressions of some others. To define what is translation is not simple. When many languages existing in the world, translation is always vital. Translation is considered as bridge which connects every cultural even cultural or language barriers . Translation is
18. converting one language (SL) to another (TL) so that the TL could convey the intended message in SL. The concepts “What is translation?” are discussed for times in forum, workshop, meeting, topic There are so many concepts of translation, which are develop by lots of experts and linguistics of translation. Take the following typical ones for examples: Translation is the interpreting of the meaning of a text and the subsequent production of an equivalent text, likewise called a "translation," that communicates the same message in another language. The text to be translated is called the "source text," and the language that it is to be translated into is called the "target language"; the final product is sometimes called the "target text." ( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation) Linguistically, translation is a branch of applied linguistics, for in the process of translation the translator consistently makes any attempt to compare and contrast different aspects of two languages to find the equivalents. Translation is the process in which a written communication or a text in a first language is produced as the written communication or text in the second language interpreting the same meaning. Here the text in the first language is the "source text" and the equivalent text that communicates the same message is the "target text" or "translated text". Initially translation has been a manual activity. In the first paper Newmark tackles the nature of translation. Anyone, he says, can immediately define translation as ''taking the meaning from one text and integrating it into another language for a new and sometimes different readership'' The first definition is presented by Catford (1965: 20). He states that translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language. Next, Nida and Taber (1969) explain the process of translating as follows. Translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural
19. equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. Identical with the above definition is the one proposed by Pinhhuck (1977: 38). He maintains that "Translation is a process of finding a TL equivalent for an SL utterance". "Translation involves the rendering of a source language (SL) text into the target language (TL) so as to ensure that (1) the surface meaning of the two will be approximately similar and (2) the structure of the SL will be preserved as closely as possible, but not so closely that the TL structure will be seriously distorted (McGuire, 1980: 2). According to Snell-Hornby (1988: 39), however, this exclusion of cultural aspect from the discussion of translation theory is due to the view of the traditional approach in linguistics which draws a sharp dividing-line between language and "extralinguistic reality" (culture, situation, etc.). The contemporary approach, according to her, sees language as an integral part of culture. This view can be seen in Hymes (1964) and Halliday and Hasan (1985), for example. ( 4.2 Translation types Translation typically has been used to transfer written or spoken SL texts to equivalent written or spoken TL texts. In general, the purpose of translation is to reproduce various kinds of texts—including religious, literary, scientific, and philosophical texts—in another language and thus making them available to wider readers. Newmark (1988b) mentions the difference between translation methods and translation procedures. He writes that, "While translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language" (p.81). He goes on to refer to the following methods of translation:
20. Word-for-word translation: the SL word order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use of this method is either to understand the structures of the SL or to analyze a difficult and complex text as a pre-translation process Literal translation: Literal translation is a broader form of translation each SL word as a corresponding TL word, but their primary meaning may differ. The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. Literal translation is considered the basic translation step, both in communicative and semantic translation, in that translation starts form there. As pre translation process, it indicates problems to be solved. Faithful translation: it attempts to produce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It transfers cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical deviation form SL norms. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text realization of the SL writer. Semantic translation: It differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text. The distinction between “faithful” and “semantic” translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible. Adaptation: It is the freest form of translation, and is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture is converted to the TL culture and the text is rewritten. Free translation: it produces the TL text without the style, form, or content of the original. Usually, it is a paraphrase much longer than the original. Therefore, the advantage is that the text in TL sounds more natural. On the contrary, the disadvantage is that translating is too casual to understand the original because of its freedom.
21. Idiomatic translation: it reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original. Communicative translation: it attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership (1988b: 45-47). “But even here the translator still has to respect and work on the form of the source language text as the only material basis of this work” (Peter Newmark, 1982:39) In conclusion, because of the difference in grammar of English nominal clause and Vietnamese equivalence, so that the translating method is different. SL TL Word – for - word Literal Faithful Free Idiomatic Semantic Communicative Adaptation Adaptation translation is the most effective method to transfer the meaning of English nominal clause into Vietnamese equivalence. 4.3 Equivalence in translation 4.3.1. Definition of equivalence The meaning of the word equivalence can be described as "equal in value, measure, force, effect, significance." Based on the word's etymology, however, its first half can also be taken to mean "like." Throughout the history of translation, equivalence has revealed itself both as a phenomenon that can be
22. located on different levels and as a concept eventually so riddled with contradictions. If a specific linguistic unit in one language carries the same intended meaning / message encoded in a specific linguistic medium in another, then these two units are considered to be equivalent. The domain of equivalents covers linguistic units such as morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, idioms and proverbs. So, finding equivalents is the most problematic stage of translation. It is worth mentioning, however, it is not meant that the translator should always find one- to-one categorically or structurally equivalent units in the two languages, that is, sometimes two different linguistic units in different languages carry the same function. For example, the verb "happened" in the English sentence "he happens to be happy" equals the adverb "bỗng nhiên" (by chance) in the Vietnamese sentence: "chàng bỗng cảm thấy mình hạnh phúc". The translator, after finding out the meaning of an SL linguistic form, should ask himself / herself what the linguistic form is in another language—TL—for the same meaning to be encoded by. Examples of Equivalents in English and Vietnamese - Inch in English may equal “bước chân” (crawl, move slowly) in Vietnamese - They knew every inch of the field = Họ biết từng ly, từng tý trong lĩnh vực này - Gold in English may equal “vàng”, heart of gold = trái tim vàng 4.3.2 Types of equivalence Jackobson and the concept of equivalence in difference Roman Jakobson's study of equivalence gave new impetus to the theoretical analysis of translation since he introduced the notion of 'equivalence in difference'. On the basis of his semiotic approach to language and his aphorism 'there is no signatum without signum' (1959:232), he suggests three kinds of translation:
23. - Intralingual (within one language, i.e. rewording or parapharase) - Interlingual (between two languages) - Intersemiotic (between sign systems) Jakobson claims that, in the case of interlingual translation, the translator makes use of synonyms in order to get the ST message across. This means that in interlingual translations there is no full equivalence between code units. According to his theory, 'translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes' (ibid.:233). Jakobson goes on to say that from a grammatical point of view languages may differ from one another to a greater or lesser degree, but this does not mean that a translation cannot be possible, in other words, that the translator may face the problem of not finding a translation equivalent. Nida and Taber: Formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence Nida argued that there are two different types of equivalence, namely formal equivalence—which in the second edition by Nida and Taber (1982) is referred to as formal correspondence—and dynamic equivalence. Formal correspondence consists of a TL item which represents the closest equivalent of a SL word or phrase. Nida and Taber make it clear that there are not always formal equivalents between language pairs. They therefore suggest that these formal equivalents should be used wherever possible if the translation aims at achieving formal rather than dynamic equivalence. The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the TT since the translation will not be easily understood by the target audience (Fawcett, 1997). Dynamic equivalence is defined as a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the TL wording will trigger the same impact on the TC audience as the original wording did upon the ST audience. They argue that 'Frequently, the form of the original text is changed; but as long as the change follows the rules of back
24. transformation in the source language, of contextual consistency in the transfer, and of transformation in the receptor language, the message is preserved and the translation is faithful' (Nida and Taber, 1982:200). Baker’s approach to translation equivalence She explores the notion of equivalence at different levels, in relation to the translation process, including all different aspects of translation and hence putting together the linguistic and the communicative approach. She distinguishes between: Equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level, when translating from one language into another. Baker acknowledges that, in a bottom-up approach to translation, equivalence at word level is the first element to be taken into consideration by the translator. Grammatical equivalence, when referring to the diversity of grammatical categories across languages. She notes that grammatical rules may vary across languages and this may pose some problems in terms of finding a direct correspondence in the TL. Textual equivalence, when referring to the equivalence between a SL text and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion. Texture is a very important feature in translation since it provides useful guidelines for the comprehension and analysis of the ST which can help the translator in his or her attempt to produce a cohesive and coherent text for the TC audience in a specific context. Pragmatic equivalence, when referring to implicatures and strategies of avoidance during the translation process. Implicature is not about what is explicitly said but what is implied. Therefore, the translator needs to work out implied meanings in translation in order to get the ST message across.
25. 4.4 Non-equivalence in translation 4.4.1 Definitions Non-equivalence: The meaning of the translation does not convey the meaning of the original writing. (This is a violation of the principle of ACCURACY) ( Ex: Original writing: Do not judge Translation: Do not criticize . Non-equivalence at word level means that the target language has no direct equivalent for a word which occurs in the text. 4.4.2 Common non-equivalence In 1992, Mona Baker stated that S.L word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. It can be abstract or concrete. It maybe a religious belief, a social custom or even a type of food. In her book, In Other Words, she argued about the common non-equivalents to which a translator come across while translating from SL into TL, while both languages have their distinguished specific culture. She put them in the following order: a) Culture specific concepts b) The SL concept which is not lexicalized in TL c) The SL word which is semantically complex d) The source and target languages make different distinction in meaning e) The TL lacks a super ordinate f) The TL lacks a specific term (hyponym) g) Differences in physical or interpersonal perspective h) Differences in expressive meaning i) Differences in form j) Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms
26. k) The use of loan words in the source text 4.4.2.1 Culture-specific concepts US UK The House of Representatives The House of Commons The Congress The Parliament The SL word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the RL culture. Concept may relate to a religious belief or a social custom or a type of food. Ex: The speaker in the House of Commons is an independent person who maintains authority and order in the Parliament Ex: “Bánh chưng”, “áo dài” in Vietnamese can not be translated into English 4.4.2.2 The SL concept which is not lexicalized in TL The SL word may express a concept which is known in the RL culture but simply not lexicalized Ex: A chip in computers Ex: Lễ dạm ngõ We know the concept, but we don’t have the word to translate them 4.4.2.3 The SL work which is semantically complex Ex; A whistle-stop speech: Bài diễn văn đọc khi dừng lại trên đường đi vận động bầu cử của các thủ tướng Mỹ Ex: Chính sách mở cửa : The “open-door” policy 4.4.2.4 The SL and TL make different distinctions in meaning Yes in Vietnamese expresses an agreement to a negative question Haven’t you got lunch? Yes, I haven’t (Vietnamese answer) No in English expresses an agreement a to negative question
27. Haven’t you got lunch? No, I haven’t (English answers) Those two examples are completely distinctions in two different cultures 4.4.2.5 The TL lacks a super-ordinate (or lack of general word) To avoid repetition, substitution is used but problems of level appear in the RL that has only hyponyms but no general words super-ordinate Ex: Animal (super-ordinate): dog, cat, tiger (Hyponym) Facilities: (super-ordinate) can be understood as equipments, conditions, and means 4.4.2.6 The TL lacks a specific term (hyponym) Color (Vietnamese express many kinds of colors, but in English this is not the case) Ex: In English we have problems with bầy/ đàn because we lack Vietnamese hyponyms or the same may occur when we mention to the way that Vietnamese addresses 4.4.2.7 Differences in physical or interpersonal perspective The physical perspective has to do with where tings or people are in relation with/to one another or to a place. The English make a distinction Come here Go there Arrive Depart Make Do Vietnamese make a distinction Vào Nam Ra Bắc Lên rừng Xuống biển
28. 4.4.2.8 Difference in the expressive meaning Some Vietnamese words have same propositional meaning but different expressive meaning with that in English Ex: To batter and to beat (đánh) To batter and to beat savagely (đánh dã man) 4.4.2.9 Differences in form Vietnamese is an isolated language while English is an inflectional language. In English, we can make use of affixes, i.e a meaningful element can be expressed by a prefix, suffix/morpheme But in Vietnamese a meaningful element is represented by a separate word. There must be differences in forms. Employer employee Interviewer interviewee Trainer trainee The English use simple words, but the Vietnamese use very different in English 4.4.2.10 Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms Frequency forms use in: English Vietnamese Noun Verb Your attention Xin chú ý Yours sincerely Trân trọng cảm ơn 4.4.2.11 The use of loan words in the source text Chic (French): elegant Alfresco (Italian): outdoor Per diem (Latin): daily allowance, daily scholarship, daily money for conference We are confused by borrowed/ loan words.
29. Chapter II English Nominal clause and Vietnamese equivalence As many definitions mentioned above, a subordinate clause that can function as subject, object, or complement is referred to as a nominal clause. In this chapter, I will focus on English Nominal clause and Vietnamese equivalence. Besides, studying and explaining the methods of translating from English examples into Vietnamese equivalence are necessary. 2.1 Nominal clause as Subject 2.1.1 That - clause Subordinate that - clause is initial main clause in a sentence and “that” can not be omitted. Ex: That Prime Minister would carry out important political reforms during the next few months was announced in public. Việc thủ tướng sẽ thực hiện những cải cách chính trị quan trọng trong vài tháng tới đã được công bố rộng rãi. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) As subjects, that-clauses are probably more often extraposed than not, and the term extraposition is particularly associated with this process. Unlike postmodifying relative clauses, that - clauses leave behind more that an empty trace in a phrase structure tree. When we extrapose a that - clause, its original position is marked by a pronoun, almost always it. This token pronoun can be called an anticipatory it (or preparatory it because it comes before the clause to which it refers. When it replaces a nominal subject, we can also consider it a kind of dummy subject since it adds no semantic information to the sentence. Ex: It is evident that the Minister of Energy has lost his job because of a corruption scandal. Rõ ràng rằng vị Bộ trưởng năng lượng đã mất chức vì một vụ tham nhũng đầy tai tiếng.
30. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Or: It is certainty that there will be more cuts in the education budget. Chắc chắn là sẽ còn nhiều sự cắt giảm trong ngân sách giáo dục. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) After structure “It is splendid/strange can use may/might and after “It is impossible / essential can use “should”. Ex: It is essential that other governments should respect his country’s sovereignty. Điều cần thiết là các chính phủ khác phải tôn trọng chủ quyền đất nước của ông. (www.Thesaigontimes.daily) Or: It is splendid that this may be a good chance of escape. Đây thật là một cơ hội tốt để đào tẩu. (Nguyễn Hồng Đức, Wikipedia- splendid) In these examples, the writers used word-for-word and literal translation. That- clause in these examples above plays the role of subject, so it is translated as subject - noun in sentence and is normally expressed by “là” word. Writers mainly maintain the original structure of sentence in translating process, so it is easy to transfer the message in sentence to readers. 2.1.2 Wh-interrogative clause In this position, subordinate clause is initial main clause. It is combined with main clause by linking words such as: who, whom, what, which, where, when, how Ex: when the orders are plentiful is worker’s question for their boss. Khi nào mới có nhiều đơn đặt hàng là câu hỏi của công nhân dành cho ông chủ của họ.
31. ( The anticipatory “It” subject is used in order to introduce the wh-interrogative clause as the real subject. Ex: It was unknown why she had killed her beloved husband. Lý do cô ấy giết người chồng yêu dấu của mình vẫn chưa được biết. (www.Thesaigontimes.daily) With wh-interrogative nominal clause in subjective function in these examples, writers use word-for-word translation because structure of sentence is simple and has close meaning with source language. The question words are translated faithfully with their equivalence in Vietnamese, such as “khi nào”, “tại sao”, “cái gì”, “ở đâu” 2.1.3 Yes/no interrogative clause In this position, yes/no interrogative clause is initial the main clause and whether can not be omitted. Ex: whether he likes it or not is not my concern. Dù nó có thích cái đó hay không thì tôi cũng chẳng bận tâm. (Wikipedia Tiếng Việt) Or: whether it was true was repeated thousands times by her. Không biết điều đó có đúng không được cô ta lẩm bẩm hàng nghìn lần liền. ( “Whether/if” are translated as “liệu” or “dù” in Vietnamese. The writers follow the structure SVC of sentence and translated equally in Vietnamese with position of Subject firstly. Moreover, writers avoid the effect of passive sentence in translating process in Vietnamese to give the natural sentence which is closer with Vietnamese cultural.
32. 2.1.4 Nominal relative clause Being a nominal clause, nominal relative clause can function as subject. Ex: who pay more attention to protecting the environment will be voted. Ai quan tâm tới bảo vệ môi trường nhiều hơn sẽ được bầu. (www.haiphong.gov.vn) Ex: What the photograph didn't say was, 'What would you do if you were the general at that time and place on that hot day, and you caught the so-called bad guy after he blew away one, two or three American soldiers?'" Điều mà bức ảnh đã không nói lên là 'Liệu bạn sẽ làm gì nếu bạn là ông tướng vào lúc đó, tại nơi đó, trong cái ngày chiến tranh nóng bỏng ấy, và tóm được một kẻ bị xem là khốn kiếp sau khi hắn vừa mới bắn tan xác một, hai, hoặc ba người lính Mỹ?'" ( ngoc loan) Nominal relative clause is much closer to noun phrase than the other nominal clauses are. The form “who” is rarely used in present-day in English in this normal relative clause function being replace in many contexts, for both universal and definite meanings, by “whoever”. Ex: Whoever wants to hurt her shall first go over my corpse! Đứa nào muốn đụng đến cô ấy thì bước qua xác tao đã! (www.tienganh.com.vn) Nominal relative nominal clause in this context is transfered as noun phrase in subject position. Structure of sentence is maintained. Because nominal relative clause doesn’t have question meaning, so writers translated in faithful translation method to convey exact meaning of message. 2.1.5 To infinitive nominal clause
33. The presence of a subject in a to-infinitive clause normally requires the presence of preceding for. But when subject is a pronoun that distinguishes subjective and objective cases. When the clause is a direct object, however, for is generally omitted before the subject. Ex: For her to do like that is unbelievable. Cô ấy làm như vậy thật là khó tin (www.hoctienganh.com) Ex: To mechanize all the industrial processes in their factory needs a long time. Để cơ giới hóa tất cả các quy trình công nghiệp trong xưởng máy của họ cần thời gian dài. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Or: To speak in public for the first time can be a terrifying experience. Phát biểu trước đám đông lần đầu có thể là một kinh nghiệm nhớ đời. The “to” in Vietnamese is expressed by “để”. Normally, writers use “để” to express the meaning of To-infinitive nominal clause because To-infinitive clause functions as Subject in these sentences. Besides, sometimes writers ignore “để” for the naturalness of sentence when translated into Vietnamese. 2.1.6. Bare infinitive nominal clause When the infinitive clause is initial, to has to be omitted. Ex: Kill him is the only way. Cách duy nhất là giết anh ta. (www.vinabook.com/nu-cuoi-nuoc-anh) Writers meet no difficult when translating bare infinitive nominal clause because it is quite similar to To-infinitive nominal clause if it omits “to” preposition. Writers focus on source language.
34. 2.1.7 Ing-participle nominal clause Being a nominal clause, Ing nominal clause functions as a subject in sentence. Ex: Realizing the futility of a prolonged war makes the warlords start to work towards national reunification. Nhận thức được sự vô ích của một cuộc chiến tranh triền miên khiến cho các chúa đất bắt đầu hành động nhằm tiến tới việc thống nhất đất nước. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Ex: Streamlining the cumbersome bureaucracy has become a top priority. Tinh giản guồng máy hành chính quan liêu đã trở thành một ưu tiên hàng đầu. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Or: Giving up a steadily job is a serious mistake. Bỏ một công việc làm ổn định là một sai lầm nghiêm trọng. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Normally, “ing-participle” clauses in Vietnamese equivalence are expressed by “đang” + Verb. But when Ing-participle stands role of subject in sentence, writers don’t express Ing-participle clause by “đang”. Writers concentrate on original structure and language in translating process and reflect exact the meaning of source language by word-for-word, literal and faithful translating methods. 2.2 Nominal clause as Object 2.2.1 Nominal clause as direct Object 2.2.1.1 That clause When That - clause is combined directly with the main clause. It functions as Object.
35. Ex: Political analysis argued that the best change for government will be a new Parliament. Các nhà phân tích chính trị lập luận rằng điều thay đổi tốt nhất cho chính phủ là tổ chức một Nghị viện mới. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Or: He confessed that he had been given a large sum of money by his party to buy votes in those rural areas. Anh ta thú nhận đã được đảng của mình trao cho một số tiền lớn để mua phiếu tại các vùng nông thôn đó. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) With this function in complex sentence, “that clause” often is after some verbs such as: think, believe, know, hope And that in this position can be omitted, especially in spoken language and in direct speech. Ex: The big bad wolf said that he was going to eat him up. Con sói độc ác nói rằng nó sắp sửa ăn thịt cậu bé. (www.vnsay.com/hoctienganh/) Or: A government spokesman said today that new legislation is to be introduced to restrict the sale of firearms. Một phát ngôn viên của chính phủ hôm nay tuyên bố một đạo luật mới sắp được đưa vào áp dụng nhằm giới hạn việc buôn bán vũ khí. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) That-clauses in direct object position are translated closely with the “SVO” structure of sentence. With aims concentrating on transferring information, writers focus on target language and apply successfully the faithful translating method in this. 2.2.1.2 Wh-interrogative clause
36. Wh-interrogative clause is also combined main clause by who, which, that and is direct object of sentence. Ex: The commission has decided when the new national park will be opened. Hội đồng đã quyết định khi nào thì mở cửa công viên quốc gia. (Lê Đình Bì - Phương pháp dịch báo chí tiếng Anh) “Wh-interrogative” clause has also origin from direct and indirect speech. Ex: My friend asks me when my father will come back. Bạn tôi hỏi tôi xem chừng nào cha tôi trở về. (forum.infoworldschool.com) “Wh-interrogative clause” as direct object can be in initial of sentence of purpose emphasizes. Ex: Where she is living I don’t know. Tôi không biết cô ấy ở đâu. (forum.infoworldschool.com) “Wh-interrogative” clauses have question meaning. Writers used the Vietnamese equivalence of Wh-question as “khi nào”, “chừng nào”, “khi nào”, “ở đâu”, “cái gì”, “tại sao” The target language translated follows closely with structure of sentence. 2.2.1.3 Yes/no interrogative clause Yes/no interrogative clause function as direct object of some verbs such as “know, care”. Ex: I don’t care whether I live or die. Tôi không quan tâm liệu mình sống hay chết nữa. Ex: He sometimes wonders if prison can really prevent crime. Đôi khi anh ta thắc mắc không hiểu nhà tù có thực sự ngăn chặn được tội ác không.
37. (Lê Đình Bì – Phương pháp dịch báo chí Tiếng Anh) Or: My father asked me if I had come there the week before. Cha tôi hỏi tôi xem có đến đó tuần lễ trước đó không. (forum.infoworldschool.com) “liệu”, “có không” is popular translating method of whether/if in Vietnamese equivalence. Writers use these equivalence words in translating to express the interrogative meaning of question words. The structure of sentence is maintained in translating process. 2.2.1.4 Nominal relative clause Nominal relative clause can function as direct object. Ex: Ask not what the country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country. Đừng hỏi Tổ quốc đã làm gì cho ta, mà hãy hỏi ta đã làm gì cho Tổ quốc mình. (www.hoctienganh.com) Or: I will ask whatever I don’t understand. Tôi sẽ hỏi bất cứ điều gì tôi không hiểu. (www.thuvien-ebook.com) Writers use word-for-word and literal translation in translating process. With the direct object position, nominal relative clause stands after Verb and is translated directly in Vietnamese equivanlence. Writers are careful in finding Vietnamese equivalence because Wh-word in nominal relative clause doesn’t bring question meaning. 2.2.1.5 To-infinitive nominal clause When To-infinitive nominal clause function as direct object, the “for” is omitted.
38. Ex: He wanted (for me) to confer with several senators before making a decision. Ông ta muốn tôi bàn bạc với vài thượng nghị sỹ trước khi đưa ra một quyết định. (Lê Đình Bì – Phương pháp dịch báo chí Tiếng Anh) Ex: The ruling party in that country threatens to exile all political dissidents. Đảng cầm quyền tại quốc gia đó dọa sẽ lưu đày tất cả những kẻ bất đồng chính kiến. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Or: No people in the world want to be controlled by a dictator. Không một dân tộc nào trên thế giới muốn bị ách cai trị của một nhà độc tài. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) “To-infinitive” clause in these examples doesn’t bring purpose meaning. Writers mainly translate “to-infinitive” clause as Noun phrases. 2.2.1.6 Ing-participle nominal clause Ing-participle nominal clause can function as direct object in the sentence. Ex: The Department of Public Health keeps warning businesses across the country not to contract with unlicensed refuse companies to collect garbage. Bộ Y tế không ngừng khuyến cáo các cơ sở kinh doanh trên toàn quốc đừng ký hợp đồng với những công ty đổ rác không có môn bài. (Lê Đình Bì – Phương pháp dịch báo chí Tiếng Anh) Ex: The vice-president opposes supplying military aid and aid to those nations. Phó tổng thống chống lại việc cung cấp quân viện và vũ khí cho các quốc gia đó. (forum.infoworldschool.com) Or: The candidates kept slinging mud at each other.
39. Các ứng viên không ngừng bôi nhọ nhau. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) “Ing-participle” clause in these examples follows the grammatical rule of English when standing after some verbs like “keep”, “oppose” . When transferring to Vietnamese equivalence, writers pay no attention on state of action such as in process of doing something, simply writers focus on function of “ing-participle” clause as Noun and translate “ing-participle” clause as Noun in sentence. 2.2.2 Nominal clause as indirect Object 2.2.2.1 Nominal relative clause Like the other nominal clause, nominal relative clause is not popular in indirect Object. Ex: He gave whoever came to the door a winning smile. Anh ta ban tặng một nụ cười chiến thắng cho bất kỳ ai đến chỗ cửa. (forum.infoworldschool.com) Ex: Give whoever calls first the prize. Tặng quà cho ai gọi đến đầu tiên. (www.vnsay.com/hoctienganh/) Or: The police have offered whoever finds the stolen diamonds a reward. Cảnh sát đề nghị khen thưởng cho bất cứ ai tìm thấy chiếc nhẫn kim cương bị đánh cắp. (www.vinabook.com/nu-cuoi-nuoc-anh) With the position of indirect object, Nominal relative clause is translated following the SVOO structure. Writers are successfully in translating into Vietnamese by translating following the order of sentence element in Vietnamese like S – V – direct Object – indirect Object.
40. 2.3 Nominal clause as Complement 2.3.1 Nominal clause as Subject complement 2.3.1.1 That clause Functioning as Noun in sentence, That - clause can be Subject complement. Ex: The chances are that she will be elected to a second presidency. Rất có triển vọng là bà ta sẽ tái đắc cử chức vụ tổng thống nhiệm kỳ hai. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) With this function, that clause often appears after “to be” verb or “to seem”, “to appear”. Ex: The pity was that no one told her about him. Tiếc là không ai nói với cô ta về anh ấy cả. (forum.infoworldschool.com) Following the SVC structure in sentence, That-clause is expressed by “là” by writers. “là” is used to connect Subject with that-clause because Verb in these examples is expressed by “to be”. The fuction of nominal that-clause is to inform information. 2.3.1.2 Wh-interrogative clause Appearing after “to be’ or “to seem”, ‘to appear” “Wh-interrogative clause” functions as Subject complement. Ex: The problem is when the workers consider they are exploited. Vấn đề là khi nào công nhân cho là mình bị bóc lột. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Ex: It appears how much tax and insurance are deducted from their salary. Nảy sinh vấn đề tiền lương của họ bị khấu trừ hết bao nhiêu tiền thuế và tiền bảo hiểm.
41. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Or: All I want to know is why you treat him the way you do. Tôi chỉ muốn biết tại sao cậu cư xử với anh ta bằng cái cách đó. (Trịnh Lữ - Cuộc đời của Pi) Wh-interrogative clause modifies for Subject in these examples. Writers use “khi nào”, “bao nhiêu”, “tại sao” to express the interrogative meaning of wh- interrogative nominal clause. Besides, writers mainly keep the English sentence structure in Vietnamese translating process. 2.3.1.3 Yes/no interrogative clause In this position, yes/no interrogative clause often complement for “to be” verb and “if” can not be used in this structure Ex: The proposal is whether you are willing to learn new things. Có ý kiến là liệu cậu có chịu học cái mới không. Or: The question now was whether they would be redeployed elsewhere or returns home to bases in the United States. Vấn đề hiện giờ là họ sẽ được tái triển khai lực lượng tại một nơi khác hay trở về nước đến đóng tại các căc cứ trong lãnh thổ Mỹ. (Reuters – 4.10.94) Writers use “liệu” or “hay”, “hay không” .when translating Yes/no interrogative nominal clause into Vietnamese. Yes/no interrogative clause in Subject complement is connected with Subject by “to be” verb which is translated by “là” in Vietnamese. Writers follow closely English sentence structure and translate equal in Vietnamese. 2.3.1.4 Nominal relative clause Nominal relative clause is after “to be” and is used to describe the subject. Ex: A leader with courage and determination is what the people are looking for.
42. Một lãnh tụ có can đảm và quyết tâm là đối tượng dân chúng đang tìm kiếm. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Or: This is what stimulated me. Đây là thứ đã kích động tôi đấy. (forum.infoworldschool.com) Writers translate Nominal relative clause in the role of Subject complement by “đối tượng”, “thứ” . Because this clause modifies for Subject so it has to be effected of Subject. 2.3.1.5 To infinitive nominal clause Like the other nominal clause, to infinitive clause can function as a subject complement. Ex: Their aim is to build an efficient world communication network. Mục tiêu của họ là xây dựng một mạng lưới truyền thông thế giới hữu hiệu. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Ex: His mission in life is to civilize jungle tribes. Sứ mạng trong đời ông là đem văn minh đến cho các bộ lạc trong rừng. (www.vinabook.com/nu-cuoi-nuoc-anh) Or: One of the objectives of the company is to achieve an annual increase in production. Một trong những mục tiêu của công ty này là đạt cho được mức tăng năng suất hàng năm. (forum.infoworldschool.com) Writers translate to-infinitive nominal clause according to purpose meaning and “to be” verb is expressed by “là” to connect and modify for Subject. Writers use faithful translation to translate these to-infinitive nominal clauses. 2.3.1.6 Bare infinitive nominal clause
43. Bare infinitive can be used as complement of subject in a sentence. The “to” of the infinitive is optional omitted in a clause, which supplies a predication correspondent to use the pro-verb do. Ex: All I did was turn off the tap. Tất cả những gì tôi đã làm là tắt vòi nước. (LG. Alexander. 1992:15) Or: All I did was (to) suggest that she should lend him no more money. Tất cả những gì tôi làm là đề nghị cô ấy không cho hắn ta mượn tiền nữa ( The difference is one of form only. There is no difference in meaning. to-infinitive or bare infinitive, so writers can translate bare infinitive nominal clause similarly to to-infinitive nominal clause. 2.3.1.7 Ing-participle clause Being a nominal clause, ing-participle clause can function as a subject complement. Ex: So I think, that's just being unfair to the women. Vì thế tôi nghĩ rằng đó là đối xử bất công với phụ nữ. (www.thesaigontimes.daily) Or: The problem is finding a company willing to do it. Vấn đề là tìm một công ty chịu làm việc này. ( Ing-infinitive nominal clause is translated into Vietnamese by writers with semantic translation, “bare infinitive” clause, “to-infinitive” clause and “Ving- participle” clause have the same equivalence in Vietnamese. 2.3.2 Nominal clause as Object complement
44. 2.3.2.1 Nominal relative clause Like the other nominal clause, but nominal relative clause can function as a object complement Ex: You can call him whatever you like. Bạn thích gọi anh ta như thế nào cũng được. (forum.infoworldschool.com) Or: You can call him whenever you like. Bạn có thể gọi anh ta bất cứ lúc nào bạn muốn. (forum.infoworldschool.com) Whatever, wherever, whenever in Vietnamese can be expressed by “bất cứ cái gì”, “bất cứ nơi đâu”, “bất cứ lúc nào” writers focus on target language and apply adaptation translation to transfer the information. 2.3.2.2 Ed-participle nominal clause Ed-participle clause is used to form the passive voice. It often occurs in formal and literary style in place. Ex: Will you have my dress repaired next week? Chị sẽ sửa cái váy cho tôi tuần tới chứ? (www.vinabook.com/nu-cuoi-nuoc-anh) Writers ignore the passive structure of English sentence in translating into Vietnamese. By using communicative translation, writers transferred successfully the meaning of sentence into Vietnamese. 2.3.3 Nominal clause as Adjective complement 2.3.3.1 That clause As that clause can follow some adjectives, it functions as adjective complement Ex: I'm not sure (that) he was right.
45. Tôi không chắc lắm về việc anh ta đúng. Ex: It is certain that this is true. Chắc chắn đây là sự thật. (www.hoctienganh.com) “That” in this position can be omitted. Some adjective phrases allowed this are: To be afraid/ glad/ pleased/sorry (that) In spoken context, “that clause” can be replaced by “so” or “not” Ex: Will Tom be at the party? Liệu Tom có đến dự tiệc không? I think so. Tôi nghĩ là có đấy (Tuyết.1997-1998: 402) This sentence means: “I think that Tom will be at the party”. Some word phrases follow this structure such as: think so, hope so, believe not, afraid not, hope not That-clause in adjective complement position, writers use literal translation to transfer the meaning of message, that-clause modifies for adjective so it is translated in the way that modifies for adjective, so writers maintain original structure when transferring meaning into Vietnamese, it is S + V + Adj + that clauses. 2.3.3.2 Wh-interrogative clause Being an adjective complement, Wh-interrogative clause is after an adjective and complement for it. Ex: "I wasn't certain whose house I was in." Tôi không rõ lắm về việc tôi đã ở trong nhà ai. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ)
46. Writers try to convey the message of interrogative clause by “ai”, “ở đâu”, “chỗ nào” . Wh-interrogative clause is translated by the way that can be suitable with style of Vietnamese, that is S + V + wh-interrogative words, “tôi không rõ lắm về cái gì? – “tôi không rõ lắm về việc tôi đã ở trong nhà ai” 2.3.3.3 Yes/no interrogative clause With certain introductory adjectives such as: to be sure, to be afraid this subordinate clause is acceptable Ex: I don't care if your car will break down." Tôi không quan tâm liệu xe của cậu có bị hỏng hay không. (www.hoctienganh.com) Or: It is mysterious if she is sixteen or not. Không hiểu con bé đã mười sáu tuổi chưa. (www.vinabook.com/nu-cuoi-nuoc-anh) “Liệu”, “không”, “chưa”, “hay chưa” are used in yes/no interrogative clause. Writers translate yes/no interrogative nominal clause like question sentence in Vietnamese. 2.3.3.4 To-infinitive nominal clause Like the other nominal clauses, it can function as adjective complement Ex: The Prime Minister was unable to answer the accusation that his economic policies have caused high inflation. Thủ tướng không thể trả lời được sự tố cáo rằng các chính sách kinh tế của ông đã gây nên tình trạng lạm phát nghiêm trọng. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Ex: They were not able to fulfill all the conditions of the contract. Họ không đủ khả năng thực hiện mọi điều kiện của bản hợp đồng.
47. Or: It is difficult to keep track of all the new developments in science and technology. Thật khó có thể theo dõi được tất cả những bước phát triển mới trong khoa học kỹ thuật. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) The To-infinitive clause resembles the that clause in never being a prepositional complement. Writers don’t translate to-infinitive nominal clause like “để” in Vietnamese, but translate the meaning of to-infinitive clause directly, juts after adjective that it modifies. The faithful translation is used in this. 2.3.3.5 Ing-participle nominal clause Ing-participle clause can also function as an adjective complement Ex: The city fathers are too busy demolishing what they call illegal kiosks and slums. Những thành phố lớn đang bận rộn phá hủy cái được gọi là quán xá và nhà ổ chuột trái phép. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Writers translate Ing-participle nominal clause basing on its continuous tense, in Vietnamese it means “đang”. The information in this example relates to news, so writers use faithful translation successfully. 2.3.4 Nominal clause as Preposition complement 2.3.4.1 Wh-interrogative clause Wh-interrogative clause follows preposition and modifies the preposition Ex: He gave the question of who was responsible for her death. Anh ta đưa ra câu hỏi về việc ai chịu trách nhiệm về cái chết của cô ấy. (www.hoctienganh.com)
48. Ex: "I keep thinking about what happened yesterday." Tôi không ngừng nghĩ về chuyện xảy ra ngày hôm qua. (www.hoctienganh.com) Or: He was not sure of what he had seen. Anh ấy không chắc lắm về cái anh ấy đã nhìn thấy. (www.vinabook.com/nu-cuoi-nuoc-anh) After prepositional that is translated by “về” in Vietnamese, writers translate the wh-interrogative clause depending on context of sentence. Wh-interrogative clause in Vietnamese equivalence in these examples doesn’t contain the interrogative meaning. 2.3.4.2 Yes/no interrogative clause Yes/no interrogative clause can modify for preposition and function as prepositional complement Ex: He talks at whether she took it or not. Anh ta ám chỉ về việc cô ta có lấy nó hay không. (forum.infoworldschool.com) “Có hay không” is used by writers when translating Yes/no interrogative clause in prepositional complement. 2.3.4.3 Nominal relative clause Nominal relative clause can also function as a preposition complement Ex: The money goes to whoever wins the race. Tiền sẽ được trao cho người thắng cuộc đua này. Or: We will send the money to whoever asks for it. Chúng tôi sẽ trao tiền cho bất cứ ai hỏi về điều này. (www.hoctienganh.com)
49. Nominal relative clause modifies for preposition in these examples, so writers follow the structure of sentence in translating, writers translate nominal relative clause in S + V + Prepostion + Nominal relative clause. 2.3.4.4 Ing-participle nominal clause Like the other nominal clause, Ing-participle nominal clause can function as a preposition complement Ex: She is suing them for having made damaging allegations. Bà ta đang thưa kiện họ về những lời cáo buộc gây phương hại cho bà. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Ex: They were accused of stealing secret government documents. Họ bị tố cáo đã đánh cắp các tài liệu mật của chính phủ. Or: Their daughter was charged with attempting to bribe one of the witnesses to give false evidence. Cô con gái của họ đã bị truy tố vì toan hối lộ một nhân chứng để đưa ra bằng chứng giả. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) After some prepositions phrases such as: to be fond of, to be interested in, to be tired of . Ing-participle clause function as preposition complement. “V-ing” is popular position after preposition, writers translate these sentences by faithful translation and meaning of these sentences is not different from “to- infinitive” nominal clause. Writers maintain the structure of source sentence in target sentence. 2.4 Nominal clause as Appositive 2.4.1 That clause Like a noun or noun phrase, that clause can be appositive Ex: Her idea - that I hire you - was a very good one.
50. Ý kiến của cô ấy về việc tôi thuê anh quả là hay. (forum.infoworldschool.com) Ex: My hope - that I visit Mount Rushmore - is now a strange idea. Mong ước đi Rushmore của tôi thật kỳ lạ. (forum.infoworldschool.com) Or: The news - that he had escaped - frightened the whole town. Tin hắn đã trốn thoát làm cả thành phố hoảng sợ. (www.thesaigontimes.daily) In appositive function, that clause is translated after the noun it modifies. The meaning of “that” in Vietnamese is “rằng”, “là”, but to have the natural meaning of target language, writers ignore “that” in translating process and translate meaning of that-clause jutst after noun to emphasize and explain more about Noun that “that-clause” modifies as appositive. 2.4.2 Wh-interrogative clause When “where”, “when” and “who” are not relative pronouns. They are conjunction and explain clearly meaning for an abstract noun. Wh-interrogative clause is appositive Ex: Her proof - where he stayed last night - helped jury find the answer. Bằng chứng của cô ấy về việc anh ta đã ở đâu đêm hôm qua đã giúp bồi thẩm đoàn tìm ra đáp án đúng. (Phạm Xuân Thảo 1996 – Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh-Mỹ) Or: Their wishes - how they can be more beautiful - never become true. Mong ước làm thế nào để đẹp hơn của họ chẳng bao giờ thành hiện thực. (www.vinabook.com/nu-cuoi-nuoc-anh) Writers use communicative translation to have the main information of sentence 2.4.3 Yes/no interrogative clause
51. Yes/no interrogative also function as appositive in sentence Ex: The suggestion - if the hotel should be converted into an office-block - impressed the manager. Ý tưởng khách sạn có nên chuyển sang dạng các tòa nhà văn phòng đã gây ấn tượng với ngài quản lý. (www.Englishgrammar.com) Writers translate yes/no interrogative clause just behind subject to modify for subject. The meaning of “If/whether” is “có nên”, in Vietnamese it has question meaning. 2.4.4 Nominal relative clause To further explain a noun, nominal relative clause functions as appositive Ex: It is a time - when wars should cease. Đã đến lúc chiến tranh nên chấm dứt. ( Ex: I don’t like that boy - who I met yesterday. Tôi không ưa thằng bé tôi đã gặp sáng nay. (forum.infoworldschool.com) Nominal relative clause functions as relative clause and modifies for noun before it. Writers don’t translate directly the meaning of wh-words because the noun before it brings the meaning of it. 2.4.5 To-infinitive nominal clause To-infinitive can function as an appositive in sentence and explain further for subject Ex: My intention - to meet him at his school - was failure. Ý định gặp anh ấy ở trường của tôi đã thất bại rồi. (forum.infoworldschool.com)
52. Similarly, to-infinitive nominal clause is translated just after the noun it modifies. Writers don’t use “để” to express the meaning of “to” in Vietnamese. The faithful translation is used in this example. 2.4.6 Ing-participle nominal clause Ing-participle clause can function as an appositive in sentence. Ex: Their duty - staying here forever - made me feel sorry. Nhiệm vụ của họ là ở đây mãi mãi làm tôi thấy thương cảm quá. (forum.infoworldschool.com) Or: I am surprised at him/John - making that mistake. Tôi ngạc nhiên vì anh ấy/John mắc lỗi. (11.18-A university grammar of English) The function of Noun of Ing-participle nominal clause in these examples is performed by literal translation.
53. Chapter III: Solutions for translating non-equivalence According to chapter II mentioned above, we can understand partly how to translate English nominal clause in many contexts into Vietnamese. Translators base on different translating and analyzing methods for their translations. However, there are still some matters need to put under consideration. For instance, some translations that are not familiar with Vietnamese or don’t transfer the meaning or implication of source language In some translations above, we find some that meet fully the demand of grammar, semantic and criterions of translation such as: accurate, natural and communicative. But some don’t satisfy these criterions, for example translation and original don’t communicate each other or Vietnamese grammar doesn’t correspond with English grammar . In some cases, we can find the one by one or absolute equivalence. But, the fact that has proved that the differences between experiences, culture, politics and technology .in two language communities are the main reason causing the difficulties to translators. In many situations, translators have to apply the way of finding relative equivalence and nearest equivalence. In summary, in any case, translators have to reflect the aims of source texts honestly. Besides, some translations only can transfer correctly information and message of source language, but lack the natural in Vietnamese. Readers could feel that the translations are unnatural and inflexible, so translations are still effected by English style. Therefore, we could use some translation solutions such as translation by omission, translation by paraphrase, translation by cultural substitution .Or even we can change position and grammar structure of nominal clause in sentence for to have more natural translations. We can see some suggestions below: Ex: It is certainty that there will be more cuts in the education budget Chắc chắn là sẽ còn nhiều sự cắt giảm trong ngân sách giáo dục
54. Chắc chắn ngân sách giáo dục sẽ còn bị cắt giảm nhiều Ex: It is essential that other governments should respect his country’s sovereignty. Điều cần thiết là các chính phủ khác phải tôn trọng chủ quyền đất nước của ông. Các chính phủ khác cần thiết phải tôn trọng chủ quyền của nước ông Ex: When the orders are plentiful is worker’s question for their boss Khi nào mới có nhiều đơn đặt hàng là câu hỏi của công nhân dành cho ông chủ của họ Công nhân hỏi ông chủ khi nào mới có nhiều đơn đặt hàng Ex: It was unknown why she had killed her beloved husband Lý do cô ấy giết người chồng yêu dấu của mình vẫn chưa được biết Chẳng ai biết tại sao cô ấy lại giết anh chồng yêu dấu của mình Ex: Whether he likes it or not is not my concern Dù nó có thích cái đó hay không thì tôi cũng chẳng bận tâm. Tôi chẳng bận tâm nó có thích cái đó hay không Ex: Whether it was true was repeated thousands times by her Không biết điều đó có đúng không được cô ta lẩm bẩm hàng nghìn lần liền Cô ta lẩm bẩm điều đó đúng hay không hàng nghìn lần liền Ex: To mechanize all the industrial processes in their factory needs a long time Để cơ giới hóa tất cả các quy trình công nghiệp trong xưởng máy của họ cần thời gian dài Cần một thời gian dài để cơ giới hóa tất cả các quy trình công nghiệp trong xưởng máy của họ
55. Ex: The commission has decided when the new national park will be opened Hội đồng đã quyết định khi nào thì mở cửa công viên quốc gia Hội đồng đã quyết định thời điểm mở cửa công viên quốc gia Ex: He gave whoever came to the door a winning smile Anh ta ban tặng một nụ cười chiến thắng cho bất kỳ ai đến chỗ cửa Anh ta nở nụ cười chiến thắng với bất cứ ai đến gần cửa Ex: The problem is when the workers consider they are exploited Vấn đề là khi nào công nhân cho là mình bị bóc lột Vấn đề là bao giờ công nhân mới nhận thức được họ bị bóc lột Ex: It appears how much tax and insurance are deducted from their salary Nảy sinh vấn đề tiền lương của họ bị khấu trừ hết bao nhiêu tiền thuế và tiền bảo hiểm Tiền thuế và bảo hiểm bị khấu trừ vào lương là bao nhiêu Ex: A leader with courage and determination is what the people are looking for Một lãnh tụ có can đảm và quyết tâm là đối tượng dân chúng đang tìm kiếm Dân chúng đang tìm kiếm một lãnh tụ có can đảm và quyết tâm Ex: All I did was turn off the tap Tất cả những gì tôi đã làm là tắt vòi nước Tôi chỉ có tắt vòi nước thôi Ex: The problem is finding a company willing to do it Vấn đề là tìm một công ty chịu làm việc này Cái khó là tìm ra được một công ty chịu làm việc này Ex: You can call him whatever you like Bạn thích gọi anh ta như thế nào cũng được
56. Bạn thích như thế nào thì gọi anh ta như thế đó Bạn thích gọi anh ta kiểu gì cũng được Ex: I'm not sure (that) he was right. Tôi không chắc lắm về việc anh ta đúng Tôi không chắc anh ta đúng Ex: "I wasn't certain whose house I was in." Tôi không rõ lắm về việc tôi đã ở trong nhà ai Tôi không nhớ rõ đã ở trong nhà ai Ex: I don't care if your car will break down." Tôi không quan tâm liệu xe của cậu có bị hỏng hay không Tôi không quan tâm xe cậu có bị hỏng hay không Ex: The city fathers are too busy demolishing what they call illegal kiosks and slums Những thành phố lớn đang bận rộn phá hủy cái được gọi là quán xá và nhà ổ chuột trái phép Những thành phố lớn đang tích cực dỡ bỏ hàng quán và khu nhà ổ chuột trái phép Ex: He was not sure of what he had seen Anh ấy không chắc lắm về cái anh ấy đã nhìn thấy Anh ấy không chắc là đã nhìn thấy cái gì Ex: We will send the money to whoever asks for it. Chúng tôi sẽ trao tiền cho bất cứ ai hỏi về điều này Chúng tôi sẽ trao tiền cho ai hỏi về điều này
57. Further more, we should consider about nominal clause that functions as appositive. When translating these sentences, we should focus on translating the noun that is modified by appositive clause first, and then we continue translating the appositive clause in order to noun and appositive are translated close together. Besides, trying to transfer the meaning of sentence into Vietnamese as naturally as possible is very important. Ex: Her idea - that I hire you - was a very good one. Ý kiến của cô ấy về việc tôi thuê anh quả là hay Tôi thuê anh là ý kiến hay của cô ấy đấy Ex: Her proof - where he stayed last night - helped jury find the answer. Bằng chứng của cô ấy về việc anh ta đã ở đâu đêm hôm qua đã giúp bồi thẩm đoàn tìm ra đáp án đúng Bằng chứng anh ta ở đâu đêm qua của cô ấy đã giúp bồi thẩm đoàn tìm ra chân tướng sự việc Ex: Their wishes - how they can be more beautiful - never become true. Mong ước làm thế nào để đẹp hơn của họ chẳng bao giờ thành hiện thực. Mơ ước được đẹp hơn của họ chẳng bao giờ đạt được Ex: It is a time - when wars should cease Đã đến lúc chiến tranh nên chấm dứt Đến lúc chấm dứt chiến tranh rồi Ex: My intention - to meet him at his school - was failure. Ý định gặp anh ấy ở trường của tôi đã thất bại rồi Tôi định gặp anh ấy ở trường mà không được Ex: Their duty - staying here forever - made me feel sorry Nhiệm vụ của họ là ở đây mãi mãi làm tôi thấy thương cảm quá Sứ mạng ở mãi nơi này của họ làm tôi thấy buồn quá
58. PART III: Conclusion In this paper I have presented the little understanding about English nominal clauses and a study on English nominal clauses in equivalence. Chapter I have presented some background knowledge about clause, nominal clause and translation equivalence. Besides, in chapter II and III, some cases of equivalences in translating English nominal clause into Vietnamese have just been analyzed basing on examples. From these analyses, some suggested translation techniques were also introduced sot heat we can find out the suitable direction in translation of nominal clauses. Moreover, I have also pointed out some non-equivalent cases in translating English nominal clause into Vietnamese equivalence. This is juts to make progress in translation and to learn from experience. As far as I know, nominal clauses are very important because they add useful information to the sentence. Sometimes, misunderstanding the meaning of nominal clause will lead to misunderstanding the meaning of whole sentence, even the whole text. That is why I myself think that I must be careful when translating English nominal clause into Vietnamese. For these reasons, after that, hopefully I myself can avoid making mistake in translating English nominal clause into Vietnamese. English and Vietnamese are different in vocabulary, grammar and sentence structure. Because the differences between English and Vietnamese, sometimes, we can not find the equivalence in Vietnamese. The best solution is learning and applying some translation techniques that can be very necessary in translating English nominal clause into Vietnamese. Besides, the essential requirements are much reading, observation and practice. These would be helpful for us. In short, because this is the first time that I take a study on translation of English nominal clause into Vietnamese, mistake is unavoidable. However, I hope that the progress I have got is much than I had expected. Since then, I can apply this small knowledge for my future job. Certainly, the goal of this study is to
59. broaden knowledge, every comment are necessary. Surely, I always want to show my eager hope that my paper will be helpful to other English learners and readers who are interested in translation.
60. REFERENCES In English: 1. Newmark, Peter, A text book of translation phoenix, ELT, 1981 2. Hornby, AS Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1995 3. Bell Roger.T, Translation and translating: theory and practice, Longman Group Ltd, London, 1991 4. Duff, Alan, Translation F.Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992 5. Baker, Mona, In other words: A course book on translation, Routledge, London, 1992 6. Quirk, Randolph and Greenbaum, A university grammar of English, Sidney, 2002 In Vietnamese: 1. Phạm Xuân Thảo, Luyện đọc và phiên dịch báo chí Anh Mỹ, 1996 2. Lê Đình Bì, Phương pháp dịch báo chí tiếng Anh, 1998 Website: www.en.wikipedia.org www.google.com www.sil.org.com www.grammar.about.com www.chompchomp.com www.Thesaigontimes.daily www.haiphong.gov.vn www.tienganh.com.vn www.hoctienganh.com www.vinabook.com/nu-cuoi-nuoc-anh www.vnsay.com/hoctienganh/ www.Englishgrammar.com www.vinabook.com/nu-cuoi-nuoc-anh www.vnsay.com/hoctienganh/ www.Englishgrammar.com
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