Khóa luận A study on translation of Import-Export trade terms

Nội dung text: Khóa luận A study on translation of Import-Export trade terms

1. Bé GI¸O DôC Vµ §µO T¹O TR¦êNG §¹I HäC D¢N LËP H¶I PHßNG ISO 9001:2008 KHãA LUËN TèT NGHIÖP ngµnh: tiÕng anh H¶I PHßNG – 2010 1
2. HAIPHONG PRIVATE UNIVERSITY FOREIGN LANGUAGES DEPARTMENT ISO 9001:2008 GRADUATION PAPER A STUDY ON TRANSLATION OF IMPORT-EXPORT TRADE TERMS By : DOAN THI THU HUONG Class : NA 1003 Supervisor : MRS. NGUYEN THI MINH NGUYET,B.A HAIPHONG - JUNE 2010 2
3. Bé GI¸O DôC Vµ §µO T¹O TR¦êNG §¹I HäC D¢N LËP H¶I PHßNG ISO 9001:2008 NHIÖM Vô §Ò TµI TèT NGHIÖP Sinh viªn: M· sè: Líp: Ngµnh: . Tªn ®Ò tµi: 3
4. NHIÖM Vô §Ò TµI 1. Néi dung vµ c¸c yªu cÇu cÇn gi¶i quyÕt trong nhiÖm vô ®Ò tµi tèt nghiÖp (VÒ lý luËn, thùc tiÔn, c¸c sè liÖu cÇn tÝnh to¸n vµ b¶n vÏ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. C¸c sè liÖu cÇn thiÕt ®Ó thiÕt kÕ tÝnh to¸n 3. §Þa ®iÓm thùc tËp: . . . . . . 4
5. C¸N Bé H¦íNG DÉN §Ò TµI TèT NGHIÖP Ng•êi h•íng dÉn thø nhÊt: Hä vµ tªn: Häc hµm, häc vÞ: . C¬ quan c«ng t¸c: Néi dung h•íng dÉn: Ng•êi h•íng dÉn thø hai: Hä vµ tªn: Häc hµm, häc vÞ: . C¬ quan c«ng t¸c: Néi dung h•íng dÉn: §Ò tµi tèt nghiÖp ®•îc giao ngµy 12 th¸ng 4 n¨m 2010 Yªu cÇu ph¶i hoµn thµnh tr•íc ngµy 10 th¸ng 7 n¨m 2010 §· nhËn nhiÖm vô §.T.T.N §· giao nhiÖm vô: §.T.T.N Sinh viªn Ng•êi h•íng dÉn H¶i Phßng, ngµy th¸ng n¨m 2010 HIÖU TR¦ëNG GS.TS.NG¦T. TrÇn H÷u NghÞ 5
6. PHÇN NHËN XÐT TãM T¾T CñA C¸N Bé H¦íNG DÉN 1. T×nh thÇn th¸i ®é cña sinh viªn trong qu¸ tr×nh lµm ®Ò tµi tèt nghiÖp: . 2. §¸nh gi¸ chÊt l•îng §.T.T.N (So víi néi dung yªu cÇu ®· ®Ò ta trong nhiÖm vô §.T.T.N trªn c¸c mÆt lý luËn, thùc tiÔn, tÝnh to¸n gi¸ trÞ sö dông, chÊt l•îng c¸c b¶n vÏ) 3. Cho ®iÓm cña c¸n bé h•íng dÉn (Ghi b»ng c¶ sè vµ ch÷) H¶i Phßng, ngµy th¸ng n¨m 2010 C¸n bé h•íng dÉn (Hä tªn vµ ch÷ kÝ) 6
7. NHËN XÐT §¸NH GI¸ CñA C¸N Bé CHÊM PH¶N BIÖN §Ò TµI TèT NGHIÖP 1. §¸nh gi¸ chÊt l•îng ®Ò tµi tèt nghiÖp vÒ c¸c mÆt thu thËp vµ ph©n tÝch sè liÖu ban ®Çu, c¬ së lý luËn chän ph•¬ng ¸n tèi •u, c¸ch tÝnh to¸n chÊt l•îng thuyÕt minh vµ b¶n vÏ, gi¸ trÞ lý luËn vµ thùc tiÔn ®Ò tµi. 2. Cho ®iÓm cña c¸n bé ph¶n biÖn (§iÓm ghi b»ng sè vµ ch÷) Ngµy th¸ng n¨m 2010 Ng•êi chÊm ph¶n biÖn 7
8. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS PART I: INTRODUCTION 1 I. Rationale of the study 1 II. Aims of the study 1 III. Method of the study 2 IV. Scope of the study 2 V. Design of the study 2 PART II: DEVELOPMENT 4 CHAPTER ONE: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 4 I. Definition of translation 4 II. Translation methods 5 2.1. The methods which emphasize source language: 6 2.1.1. Word-for-word translation 6 2.1.2. Literal translation 6 2.1.3. Faithful translation 7 2.1.4. Semantic translation: 7 2.2. The methods which emphasize target language: 8 2.2.1. Translation as adaptation: 8 2.2.2. Free translation: 8 2.2.3. Idiomatic translation 9 2.2.4. Communicative translation 9 2.3. Translation by using a loan word 10 2.4. Shift or transposition translation: 10 2.5.Translation by parraphrase 11 2.6. Translation by omission 11 III. Equivalence in translation 11 IV.Translation of ESP 15 4.1.Definition of ESP 15 4.2. Types of ESP 15 8
9. 4.3. Definition of technical translation 17 V. Terms in import-export trade field 17 5.1.Definition 17 5.2. Classification of import-export trade terms 18 5.2.1.Single terms 18 5.2.2 Compound terms 20 CHAPTER TWO: SOME STRATEGIES APPLIED IN TRANSLATION OF SOME COMMON IMPORT-EXPORT TRADE TERMS 22 I.The strategy applied in translation of single terms. 22 1.1. General single terms 22 1.2. Single terms with prefixes: “non”, “anti”, “de” 23 1.3. Single terms with suffixes: “tion”, “or”, “ee”, “er” 24 II. Strategies applied in translation of compound terms 25 2.1 . Shift or transposition translation 25 2.1.1. Automatic translation 25 2.1.2 . Rank-shift translation 28 2.2. Translation by omission 29 2.3. Translation by addition 31 2.4. Translation by paraphrase using related words 32 2.5. Translation by using a loan word with or without explanation 33 2.5.1. General terms 33 2.5.2. Acronyms 34 CHAPTER THREE: IMPLICATION 37 I. Some problems in translation process 37 1.1.The difficulties in translation of some terms 37 1.2.The difficulties related to the polysemy in English 38 II. Some suggestions to solve the problems 38 PART III: CONCLUSION 40 REFERENCES 41 9
10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Mrs Nguyen Thi Minh Nguyet (B.A) who from the begining to the end, helped me to finish this paper with valuable instructions and precious materials. My sincere thanks also go to Mrs.Tran Thi Ngoc Lien (M.A) - Dean of Foreign Languages Department of Hai Phong Private University and all other teachers who have always been most willing to give me precious suggestions and reference books . Last but not least, I would like to give heartfelt thanks to my family and friends who I have never enough words to express my great gratitude for encouragement, support and help. Haiphong, 2010 Student Doan Thi Thu Huong 10
11. PART I: INTRODUCTION I. Rationale of the study Nowadays, English is one of the most important languages in the world simply because it is maybe the only language that truly links the whole world together. English appears in all fields of life such as: business, education, healthcare, culture, so on. Thus, learning and mastering English is quite essential to everybody, especially to people often use English in work, transaction, purchase. However, it is not true that anybody of us can use skillfully English in any field of life. Since Vietnam joined in WTO, import- export trade with foreign countries has become an important field of economy. Hence, it is very necessary to acquire a certain level of English terms in this field. A number of Vietnamese learners get trouble in translating import-export trade terms, certainly face difficulties in the translation process due to not only the variety of Vietnamese and English words, the differences of using specific English words but also the more and more appearance of new terms in human activities. That is the main reason inspiring me to carry out this study. Importantly, I hope that to some extent my study can offer a thorough understanding about import- export trade field as well as help Vietnamese in translation of this field terms. II. Aims of the study My study aims at: - Introducing theoretical background of translation, translation methods, terms in import-export trade field. - Giving some strategies applied in translation of import-export trade terms. - Pointing out some difficulties, common mistakes possibly in the translation process possibly made by Vietnamese learners and suggesting some solutions. 11
12. III. Methods of the study In the process of studying, the following methods are employed: - Data collection: Reading books and reference books, searching books on the internet and collecting information from foreign websites. - Data analysis: Selecting related document and classifying information in terms of the aims of the study. - Comparative and contrastive analysis: Analysing the above classified information, arranging the information into the parts of the study. IV. Scope of the study Import- export trade field is an extremely large field. Due to the limitation of time, knowledge and experience, I am not ambitious to study all matters of this theme but only focus on translation theory and translation strategies of some common import- export trade terms in English. V. Design of the study My study is divided into three main parts of which the second one is the most important part. - Part one : Introduction - gives out rationale, aims, scope, methods and design of the study. - Part two : Development - mentions the main content of the study and it is further divided into three chapters as below: Chapter I: Theoretical background – introduces definition of translation, translation methods, terms in import- export trade field. Chapter II : Some analysis, comparison, contrast – points out some strategies in translation of some common import- export trade terms. 12
13. Chapter III : Implication – points out some problems in translation process and gives some suggestions to solve the problems. - Part three: Conclusion - gives a brief summary of the main points mentioned in the previous parts and some suggestions for further study. 13
14. PART II: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER ONE: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND I. Definition of translation Translation is differently defined by many scholars from their own points of view. Some of translation scholars defined their theories as source- oriented theories, others regarded them as the target-oriented theories.The following are some typical definitions that serve as basic theoretical background for this study: According to Wikipedia, Translation is the comprehension of the meaning of a text and the subsequent production of an equivalent text, likewise called a "translation", that communicates the same message in another language. Roger T.Bell (1991) defines Translation as the expression in another language (target language) of what has been expressed in one language(source language), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalencies, Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. The Merriam- Webster Dictionary (1974) states that Translation consists of changing from one state or form to another, to turn into one’s own or another’s language. Translation is basically a change of form. When we speak the form of a language, we are referring to the actual words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc. The forms are referred to as the surface structure of a language. It is the structural part of language which is actually seen in print or heard in speech. In translation the form of the source language is replaced by the form of the receptor/ target language. John Cunnison Catford (1965) argued that Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another (TL). 14
15. Diaz- Diocaretz (1985) presented that Translation will be understood as the final product of problem solving and sign production of a receptor- text (RT) functionally equivalent to a source text (ST) by a human being in a given language for a given group of text receivers. Tanke (1975) defined Translation as the process of communication in which the translator is interposed between a transmitter and a receiver who use different languages to carry out code of conversation between them. In 1976,Tanke provided a more complete definition of translation, he suggest that translation be viewed as the transfer of a text from a source language into a text in the target language, the objective being a perfect equivalent of meaning. Peter Newmark (1988) defined Translation as rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. Whatever definitions we come across , almost all of them can be subsumed under two definitions. The first definition is translation is that the replacement of one written text from one language to another in which the main goal of the translator is meaning. The second way is that the transference of a message communicated from one text into a message communicated in another, with a high degree of attaining equivalence of context of the message components of the original text and the semiotic elements of the text. (Quoted in A text book of translation: theoretical and practical implications – Said M. Shiyab) II. Translation methods There are various methods by which the text may be translated. The central problem of translating is whether to translate literally or freely. It all depends on some factors such as the purpose of the translation, the nature of readership and the text types. 15
16. According to NewMark, there are eight methods of translation, namely word-for-word-translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, communicative translation, idiomatic translation, free translation, translation as adaptation. 2.1. The methods which emphasize source language: 2.1.1. Word-for-word translation This method of translation involves translating a word in the source language to a word in the target language. Although this seems very much like literal translation in fact it is not. The problem with this kind of translation is that the outcome may not be meaningful, it could be awkward and discomfited simply because meaning was not the center of translation. Eg: She has two dimples when she smiles. Cô ấy có hai núm đồng tiền khi cô ấy mỉm cười I wanted to own a car when I was only 15 yearsold Tôi muốn sở hữu một chiếc xe hơi khi tôi mới 15 tuổi 2.1.2. Literal translation Literal translation is a broader form of translation, each SL word has a corresponding TL word, but their primary meanings may differ. The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical items are again translated out of context. Literal translation is considered the basic translation step, both in communicative and semantic translation, in that translation starts from there. As pre-translation process, it indicates problems to be solved. Eg: Could your company send me the electronic bill of lading text before 10 o’clock tonight? 16
17. Công ty ông có thể gửi cho tôi chứng từ vận đơn điện tử trước10 giờ tối nay đ ược không? We would deliver goods after seeing settlement note. Chúng tôi sẽ giao hàng sau khi nhận được hoá đơn thanh toán 2.1.3. Faithful translation This method tries to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraint of the TL grammatical structures. It transfers cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical deviation from SL norms. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text- realization of the SL writer. Eg: Today the Vietnamese are, almost no exception, extremely friendly to Western visitors. Ngày nay, người Việt Nam, gần như không có ngoại tệ, đều rất thân thiện với khách du lịch người phương Tây. (Text book for Translation 1-Haiphong Private University) 2.1.4. Semantic translation: Semantic translation differs from faithful translation only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text, compromising on meaning where appropriate so that no assonance, word play or repetition jars in the finished version. It does not rely on cultural equivalence and makes very small concessions to the readership .While faithful translation is dogmatic, semantic translation is more flexible. Newark (1982:22) says that“ semantic translating where the translator attempt, within the base syntactic and semantic constrains of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author”. 17
18. Eg: Today the Vietnamese are, almost no exception, extremely friendly to Western visitors Ngày nay, người Việt Nam đều rất thân thiện với các khách du lịch nước ngoài. (Text book for Translation 1-Haiphong Private University) 2.2. The methods which emphasize target language: 2.2.1. Translation as adaptation: This method is the freest form of translation. It is frequently used for plays (comedies) and poetry: themes, characters, plots preserved, SL culture converted to TL culture and text is rewritten. Eg: “ Một đèo, một đèo, lại một đèo Khen ai khéo tạc vách cheo leo” (“Đèo ba đội”- Hồ Xuân Hương) “A gap, a pass and still another pass Praise to the sculptor this land of sweet suspense” “Từ ngày chàng bước xuống ghe Sóng bao nhiêu đợt bánh phu thê rầu bấy nhiêu” “Since you took the voyage by ferry How much wave trains slapped, the Conjugal cake felt sad like that” 2.2.2. Free translation: Free translation is the translation which is not close to the original, but the translation just transmits meanings of the SL. It reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original. Therefore, the advantage is that the 18
19. text in TL sounds more natural. On the contrary, the disadvantage is that translating is too casual to understand the original because of its freedom. Eg: “Children should be protected from abuse and neglect”. Trẻ em cần được bảo vệ chống lại mọi hình thức bạo lực, gây tổn thương hay xúc phạm, bỏ mặc hoặc xao nhãng trong việc chăm sóc. “She stood by the window and looked out dully at a gray cat walking a gray fence in a gray backyard”. Cô ấy đứng bên cửa sổ, nhìn u sầu con mèo mướp bên ngoài đang đi trên hàng rào cũ trong cái sân ẩm mốc. 2.2.3. Idiomatic translation. Idiomatic translation is used for colloquialism and idioms whose literalism is the translation, by which the translator does not transfer the literalism of the original, uses the translation of colloquialisms and idioms. Eg: Half a load is better than no bread Méo mó có hơn không When in Rome, do as Romans do Nhập gia tùy tục Man propose, God dispose Mưu sự tại nhân, hành sự tại thiên It never rains but it pours Họa vô đơn chí. 19
20. 2.2.4. Communicative translation It attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both language and content are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. “ But even here the translator still has to respect and work on the form of the source language text as the only material basis for his work” (Peter Newmark, 1982:39). Eg: How do you do? Xin chào Located on An Duong Vuong avenue, on the beautiful beach of Quy Nhon, the 3 stars Hoang Yen Hotel with 11 floors is really an ideal place to stay when you vistit Binh Dinh province. Khách sạn Hoàng Yến cao 11 tầng với tiêu chuẩn quốc tế 3 sao, tọa lạc trên đại lộ An Dương Vương, bên bờ biển Quy Nhơn xinh đẹp thật sự là nơi lý tư ởng khi bạn với Bình Định. Beside above eight methods, there are some different translation methods which are listed as following: 2.3. Translation by using a loan word This method is very useful when the translator deal with culture-specific items, modern concepts or ideals, proper names of diseases or medicines and buzz words. Using a loan word is dramatically strong method applied for the word which have foreign origin or have no equivalence in TL. Eg: HIV and AIDS are two loan words that are frequently used in Vietnamese, as they are reffered to by their English names in almost every part of the world. Because these words have been common used in Vietnam for a long time, they are often used without any accompanying explanation. 20
21. 2.4. Shift or transposition translation: This method is a translation procedure involving a change in the grammar from SL to TL, including two subclassification: automatic translation and rank-shift translation.“Automatic translation” has change in the word order and offers translators no choice. “Rank-shift translation”, also involves the change in the grammar from SL to TL, however, the TL add or omit word comparing with the SL. Eg: Automatic translation: Cartoon film means “ phim hoạt hình” International airport means “ sân bay quốc tế” Rank-shift translation: Advice note means “ giấy báo gửi hàng” Joint venture means “ xí nghiệp hợp doanh” 2.5. Translation by parraphrase This method can be used when the translator translate a word or a concept that does not exist in TL or when the TL term for it does not include all the meanings conveyed by SL term for the same concept. Eg: “Pregnant women should avoid alcohol” can be translated as “ Phụ nữ mang thai không nên uống bia rượu” 2.6. Translation by omission This method is often used when translator want to omit words or phrases that are not essential to the meaning or impact of the TL. This method is especially true for words that would require langthy explanations, awkward paraphrase, or literal and unnatural translation, which would interrupt the flow of the text and could distract the reader from the overall meaning. Eg: “Much can be done even without being physically present in the meeting” can be translated as “ nhiều việc có thể làm ngay cả khi không có mặt tại cuộc họp” Rate of loading means “ mức bốc hàng” 21
22. Notification of debting means “ giấy báo nợ” III. Equivalence in translation Jakobson (1959) made a contribution to the theoretical analysis of translation. He introduced the concept of equivalence in difference. He suggested three kinds of equivalence known as: - Intralingual (within one language, i.e. rewording or paraphrase) - Interlingual (between two languages) - Intersemiotic (between sign systems) Nida (1964:159) suggests formal and dynamic or functional equivalence. Formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content. It requires that the message in the target language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language . Dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect, where the relationship between the receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message. Munday (2001:47) describes these five different types of equivalence as follows: Denotative equivalence is related to equivalence of the extralinguistic content of a text. Connotative equivalence is related to the lexical choices, especially between near-synonyms. Text-normative equivalence is related to text types, with texts behaving in different ways Pragmatic equivalence, or 'communicative equivalence', is oriented towards the receiver of the text or message. 22
23. Formal equivalence is related to the form and aesthetics of the text, includes word plays and the individual stylistic features of the source text . Baker (1992) defined four kinds of equivalents as follows: Equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level, when translating from one language into another. Grammatical equivalence, when referring to the diversity of grammatical categories across languages. Textual equivalence when referring to the equivalence between a SL text and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion. Pragmatic equivalence, when referring to imprimaturs and strategies of avoidance during the translation process According to Baker (1992): If a specific linguistic unit in one language carries the same intended meaning encoded in a specific linguistic medium in another, then these two units are considered to be equivalent. The domain of equivalents covers linguistic units such as morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, idioms and proverbs. So, finding equivalents is the most problematic stage of translation. It is worth mentioning, however, it is not meant that the translator should always find one-to-one categorically or stucturallly equivalent units in the two languages, that is, sometimes two different linguistic units in different languages carry the same function. For example, the verb “ happen” in the English sentence “ he happens to be happy” equals the adverb “ bỗng nhiên” ( by chance) in the Vietnamese sentence: “ Chàng bỗng cảm thấy mình hạnh phúc”. Translator, after finding out the meaning of an SL linguistic form, should ask himself/ herself what the linguistic form is in another language (TL) for the same meaning to be encoded. 23
24. For example: 1. The English “Owl” maybe equal to Vietnamese “Cú vọ” symbolically: He is an owl = Hắn ta là tên cú vọ 2. Coal in English may equal “ than/ củi” in Vietnamese and Newcastle in English may equal Mountainous area in Vietnam, hence: Taking coal to Newcastle = Chở củi về rừng 3. Shoulder in English may equal “vai” in Vietnamese: The blame rests on my shoulder = Gánh nặng đè lên đôi vai tôi 4. Bedsheet in English may equal “ga giường” in Vietnamese: As white as bedsheet = trắng như tuyết/ ga trải giường 5. Inch in English may equal “b ư ớc chân”(crawl, move slowly) in Vietnamese They knew every inch of the field = Họ biết từng ly, từng tý trong lĩnh vực này. 6. Gold in English may equal “vàng”: heart of gold trái tim vàng. 7. Thread in English may equal “ chỉ/ tóc” in Vietnamese His life hangs by a thread = Sinh mạng của anh ta treo trên sợi tóc. 8. The number 9 in English may equal the “Chín tầng mây” in Vietnamese: She has dressed up to nines = Cô ta diện ngất trời. 24
25. 9. The word “ăn” ( to eat) in Vietnamese collocates with many other words, in the examples: làm ăn, ăn học, ăn chơi, ăn uống, ăn tham, ăn chặn, ăn bẩn, ăn nằm, ăn hàng . Its equivalents, however, as far as collocatability is concerned in English are: “to eat” [ for food], “to drink” [for tea], “to work” [for business] and “to play” [for entertainment] respectively 10. “Do not” in English sometimes equal “ chẳng” in Vietnamese: I do not agree with you. Tôi chẳng đồng ý với anh đâu. 11. Sometimes “ núi” in Vietnamese may equal “grass” in English:Đứng núi này trông núi nọ = The neigbour’s grass is greener. Explanation: Sometimes, due to religious, cultural and literary factors, it is dificult to find a standard equivalents in one language for another. To render a satisfactory translation, the translator needs to acquainted with phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, idiomatic, religious and cultural system of both SL &TL, either to find standard equivalents, give an explanation, or otherwise convey the author’s intended meaning to the TL audience. IV. Translation of ESP 4.1. Definition of ESP Tony Dudley-Evans and Maggie Jo St. John( 1998) identif y ESP’s absolute characteristics and variable characteristics. Absolute characteristics : ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners; ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves; ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre. Regarding variable characteristics, ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines; ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from 25
26. that of general English; ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level; ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students; most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems. 4.2. Types of ESP David Carter (1983) identifies three types of ESP: English as a restricted language English for Academic and Occupational Purposes English with specific topics. The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of English as a restricted language. In “English for Specific Purposes: A case study approach” Mackay,R and Mountford,A (1978) clearly illustrate the difference between restricted language and language with this statement: “ the language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as “special”, in the sense that the repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and can be accurately determined situationally, as might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hostess. However, such restricted repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar. Knowing a restricted “language” would not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel situation, or in contexts outside the vocational environment”. The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English for Academic and Occupational Purposes. In the “ Tree of ELT” (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three branches: English for Science and Technology (EST), English for Business and Economics (EBE), and English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for 26
27. Occupational Purposes (EOP). An example of EOP for the EST branch is “English for Technicians” whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is “English for Medical Studies”. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) do note that there is not a clear-cut distinction between EAP and EOP: “people can work and study simultaneously; it is also likely that in many cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to, a job” . Perhaps this explains Carter’s rationale for categorizing EAP and EOP under the same type of ESP. It appears that Carter is implying that the end purpose of both EAP and EOP are one in the same: employment. However, despite the end purpose being identical, the means taken to achieve the end is very different indeed. I contend that EAP and EOP are different in terms of focus on Cummins’ (1979) notions of cognitive academic proficiency versus basic interpersonal skills. 4.3. Definition of technical translation According to wikipedia, Technical translation is a type of specialized translation involving the translation of documents produced by technical writers (owner’s manuals, user guides, etc.), or more specifically, texts which relate to technological subject areas or texts which deal with the practical application of scientific and technological information. In “ Approaches to translation” (1981) Newmark differently distinguishes technical translation from institutional translation: “Technical translation is one of the part of specialized translation; institutional translation, the areas of politics, commerce, finance, government etc is the other”. He goes on to suggest that technical translation is potentially non- cultural and universal because the benefits of technology are not confined to one speech community. The terms in technical translation, therefore, should be translated. On the contrary, institutional translation is cultural, so, in 27
28. principle, the terms are transferred unless they are connected with international organization. Though having different approaches to technical translation, two authors view it as specialized translation with its essential element – “special terms”. V. Terms in import-export trade field 5.1. Definition A term is a word or expression that has a particular meaning or is used in particular activity, job, profession, etc (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 1991) Terms, like words in the general language lexicon, are distinctive and meaningful signs which occur in special language discourse. (M. Teresa Crabé, 1999:80). When writing technical (scientific, medical, legal, etc.) articles, it is usually the case that a number of technical terms specific to the subject matter will be presented. Technical terminology is the specialized vocabulary of any field, not just technical fields. Within one or more fields, these terms have one or more specific meanings that are not necessarily the same as those in common use (Wikipedia). The global economy has given businesses broader access than ever before to markets all over the world. Goods are sold in more countries in larger quantities, and in greater variety. Import-export trade is main activity of firms especially in current economy recession and market openning condition. Viet Nam has become a member of WTO, import-export trade has been increasing sharply, thus, the demand of using English documents of import-export trade also increases remarkablely. Import-export trade terms become important to businessmen, business experts, import-export officers, students and lectures There are a lot of terms in import-export trade field, mainly related 28
29. to credit and international trade payment,customs, duty, incoterms,UCP .so on. 5.2. Classification of import-export trade terms 5.2.1. Single terms The single term in import-export trade field can be single word or can be formed by the help of prefixes and suffixes. For example: 1.General single terms Demurrage Clearance Quotation Checkpoints Franchising Barters Preference Warehouse Offer Cargo Agent Draft Manifest Package Drawback Invoice Duty Wharfage 2. Single terms with prefixes Positive prefix “anti” means “ chống” in Vietnamese equivalent: Anti-dumping Anti-monopoly Negative prefixes “ Non” means “ không or phi” ; “de” means “giảm đi, mất đi” in Vietnamese equivalent. 29
30. Non-tariff Non-government Non-tax Non-privileged Devaluation Non-cash Depreciation Non-monetary 3. Single terms with suffixes Noun-forming by suffixes: “er”, “ee”, “tion”, “or” Importer Exporter Purchaser Seller Forwarder Drawer Consignor Immediator Inspector Ditributor Surveyor Manufacturer Consignee Drawee Declaration Transaction 5.2.2. Compound terms Compound noun formed by N + N Document draft Import certificate Inspection certificate Insurance policy Import declaration Import quota Proforma invoice Treasury bill Delivery order Cargo manifest 30
31. Export broker Customs declaration Customs clearance Bank bill Counterpart fund Insurance certificate Compound noun formed by adj + N Commercial invoice Detailed invoice Provisional invoice Consular invoice General average Particular average Contructive loss Quick dispatch Nominal bill Commercial bill Compound noun formed by participle + N Shipping date Packing list Shipping request Touched bill of health Drawing rights Combined B/L Antedated B/L Confirmed L/C 31
32. CHAPTER TWO: SOME STRATEGIES APPLIED IN TRANSLATION OF SOME COMMON IMPORT- EXPORT TRADE TERMS I. The strategy applied in translation of single terms. There are many strategies applied in translation of single terms but one of the most popular strategies is recognized translation. A large number of words can be translated basing on original words in general text. However due to the multi-lexical meaning of word and ESP translation, word still carries the original meaning or adds new concept, new meaning which translators can easily realize and find the closest meaning of word in TL. For example, “broker” can be translated as “ người môi giới” basing on original meaning in general text but “agreement” means “ hiệp định” when it is used in ESP. 1.1.General single terms Source Language Target Language Demurrage Phạt tàu chậm Franchising Giao dịch nhượng quyền Preference Ưu đãi Offer Chào hàng Quotation Bảng yết giá Agent Đại lý Barter Hàng đổi hàng Manifest Bảng kê khai hàng hóa giao lên tàu Drawback Số tiền thuế quan được giảm 33
33. Clearance Thông quan Checkpoint Cửa khẩu hải quan Warehouse Kho hàng Draft Hối phi ếu Cargo Hàng hoá Package Bao bì Duty Thuế Invoice Hoá đơn Wharfage Phí trữ hàng ở cầu cảng Warrant Chứng chỉ lưu kho 1.2. Single terms with prefixes: “non”, “anti”, “de” Source Language Target Language Non- tariff Phi thuế quan Non-monetary Phi tiền tệ Non-government Phi chính phủ Non-cash Phi tiền mặt Non-tax Không phải trả thuế Non-privileged Không có đặc quyền Anti-dumping Chống bán phá giá Devaluation Sự phá giá 34
34. Depreciation Sự mất giá 1.3. Single terms with suffixes: “tion”, “or”, “ee”, “er” Source Language Target Language Consignor Người gửi hàng Consignee Người nhận hàng Importer Nhà nhập khẩu Exporter Nhà xuất khẩu Purchaser Người mua Seller Người bán Forwarder Người giao nhận Immediator Trung gian Distributor Nhà phân phối Drawer Người ký phát hối phiếu Drawee Người trả tiền hối phiếu Manufacturer Nhà sản xuất Declaration Tờ khai Inspector Giám định viên Transaction Giao dịch 35
35. II. Strategies applied in translation of compound terms 2.1. One of the most popular strategies applied in translation of the compound terms is shift or transposition translation. A shift or transposition translation is a translation procedure involving a change in the grammar from SL to TL, including two subclassification: automatic translation and rank-shift translation. 2.1.1. Automatic translation has change in the word order and offers translators no choice. For example: The compound term “Commercial invoice” is formed by an adjective and a noun. “Commercial” means “thương mại” and “ invoice” means “hóa đơn” in Vietnamese equivalent. And “commercial invoice” is translated as “hoá đơn thương mại”. It is clear that the position between two words has changed in TL. In English the adjective “commercial” stands before the noun “invoice” but this order has changed conversely in Vietnamese TL. The other term, “Insurance policy” is known as “Hợp đồng bảo hiểm” in Vietnamese equivalent. There is also change in the order of these words, in English the noun “ insurance” stands before the noun “policy” however, when it is translated into Vietnamese, the noun “insurance” comes after the noun “policy”.These examples stated that automatic shift is applied in translating flexibly, and all words in these terms are naturally converted from English into Vietnamese without adding any words or expressions. Compound nouns formed by noun + noun Source Language Target Language Document draft Hối phiếu chứng từ Import certificate Chứng nhận nhập khẩu Inspection certificate Chứng nhận giám định 36
36. Insurance policy Hợp đồng bảo hiểm Import declaration Tờ khai nhập khẩu Import quota Hạn ngạch nhập khẩu Proforma invoice Hoá đơn chiếu lệ Treasury bill Trái phiếu kho bạc Delivery order Lệnh giao hàng Cargo manifest Bảng kê khai hàng hoá Export broker Người môi giới xuất khẩu Customs declaration Tờ khai hải quan Customs clearance Thông quan hải quan Bank bill Hối phiếu ngân hàng Counterpart fund Vốn đối ứng Insurance certificate Giấy chứng nhận bảo hiểm Courier receipt Hóa đơn chuyên chở Quality control Kiểm soát chất lượng Sight draft Hối phiếu trả tiền ngay Bearer bill Hối phiếu vô danh Order bill Hối phiếu theo lệnh Charter party Hợp đồng thuê tàu Trade bill Hối phiếu thương mại 37
37. Compound nouns formed by adj + noun Source Language Target Language Commercial invoice Hoá đơn thương mại Detailed invoice Hoá đơn chi tiết Provisional invoice Hoá đơn tạm thời General average Tổn thất chung Particular average Tổn thất riêng Contructive loss Tổn thất kết cấu Quick dispatch Thưởng nóng Commercial bill Hối phiếu thương mại Nominal bill Hối phiếu đích danh Consular invoice Hóa đơn lãnh sự Transferable L/C Thư tín dụng chuyển nhượng Applicable laws Luật ứng dụng Direct B/L Vận đơn đi thẳng Revolving credit Tín dụng tuần hoàn Irrevocable L/C Thư tín dụng không thể huỷ ngang Spot transaction Giao dịch giao ngay 38
38. Compound nouns formed by participle + N Source Language Target Language Touched bill of health Giấy chứng nhận sức khoẻ nghi vấn Drawing rights Quyền rút vốn Combined B/L V ận đơn hỗn hợp Antedated B/L Vận đơn kí lùi ngày cấp Confirmed L/C Thư tín dụng xác nhận Packing list Bảng liệt kê hàng hóa trong kiện Shipping request Yêu cầu giao hàng Shipping date Ngày giao hàng 2.1.2. Rank-shift translation also involves the change in the grammar from SL to TL, however, the TL add or omit word comparing with the SL. For instance, “Documentary against acceptance” is translated as “Chấp nhận thanh toán đổi chứng từ”. Adding word “ thanh toán” in translation text which readers can not find the word “payment” in SL, makes the information in SL clearly and helps the readers understand it as the way of payment. “Standard international trade classification” is translated as “tiêu chuẩn phân loại hàng hoá quốc tế”. The word “ cargo” does not appear in SL but it is still translated in TL. 39
39. Some terms are translated by using this strategy: Source Language Target Language Accomplished bill of lading Vận đơn đã nhận hàng Telegraphic transfer Chuyển tiền bằng điện Report of stowage Giấy chứng nhận xếp hàng tốt Floating exchange rate Tỉ giá hối đoái thả nổi Shipped on board B / L Vận đơn đã xếp hàng Special drawing rights Quyền rút vốn đặc biệt Uniform customs and practice for Quy tắc thống nhất về thực hành thư document credit tín dụng chứng từ. 2.2.Translation by omission This strategy is often used to translate phrases by omitting words that are not essential to the meaning or impact of the text in order to avoid redundancy in translation text. For instance, SL “Auto-selection of cargo for checking”, the word “auto- selection” means “ tự động lựa chọn” in Vietnamese equivalent. And we can easily get the traslation text by word-for-word strategy as “ tự động lựa chọn của hàng hoá để kiểm tra”. However, we should translate by omitting the word “of” to avoid the boringness in the translation text: “Tự động lựa chọn 40
40. hàng hoá để kiểm tra”. Another example, after omitting the preposition “of” in “letter of credit”, it means “thư tín dụng”. With this strategy, the content of SL is not changed, and translators can gain a better and more natural Vietnamese TL. Some cases of omission as following examples: Source Language Target Language Bill of lading Vận đơn Certificate of quantity/ weight Chứng nhận số lượng/ trọng lượng Letter of authority Thư ủy thác Global system of trade preference Hệ thống ưu đãi thương mại toàn cầu among developing countries giữa các nước đang phát triển Economis commission for Asia and Ủy ban kinh tế Châu Á và Cận đông Far East UN Convention on contracts for the Công ước của Liên hợp quốc về hợp international Sale of goods đồng mua bán quốc tế Letter of guarantee Chứng thư bảo lãnh Letter of indemnity Chứng thư bồi thường Certificate of origin Chứng nhận nguồn gốc Certificate of insurance Chứng nhận bảo hiểm Free from particular average Điều kiện bảo hiểm miễn tổn thất riêng 41
41. Irrespective of franchise Nhượng quyền bất chấp Inrrespective of percentage Theo tỷ lệ phần trăm không tính đến Technical barrier to trade Hàng rào kĩ thuật thương mại 2.3. Translation by addition This strategy often adds information, explains more about terms which are difficult to focus on a word or phrase in TL so that readers can understand the terms exactly. For example, the term “Sinking, standing, burning and collision” can be translated into Vietnamese by word-for-word method as “chìm, mắc cạn, cháy và đâm va vào nhau” however, if it is translated as “ Tổn thất do tàu chìm, mắc cạn, cháy, đâm va vào nhau”, readers can understand it clearly.The term “Generalized system of preference” is another example, it can be known as “Hệ thống ưu đãi phổ cập” in Vietnamese equivalent but it is used in import- export field, means “ Hệ thống thuế quan ưu đãi phổ cập”. All below examples are also translated by applying this strategy: Source Language Target Language Shortage bond Biên bản thiếu hàng Report of stowage Giấy chứng nhận xếp hàng tốt Report on receipt of cargo Biên bản kết toán hàng với tàu Survey report Biên bản giám định tổn thất Warrant Chứng chỉ lưu kho 42
42. Cash against document Thanh toán bằng tiền mặt đổi chứng từ Cash on delivery Trả tiền khi giao hàng Bonded warehouse Nhà kho giữ hàng nhập Contract with oil and other cargo Hợp đồng tàu chở dầu và hàng hóa khác FOB airport Giao hàng lên boong máy bay FOB and commission Giá FOB cộng thêm hoa hồng cho trung gian ở nước xuất khẩu Delivered duty unpaid Giao hàng ở địa điểm đích thuế quan chưa nộp 2.4. Translation by paraphrase using related words This stategy can be used when we translate an English word or concept that does exist in Vietnamese or when the Vietnamese term for it does not include all the meanings conveyed by the English term for the same concept. For example, the term “Cutting making product” is known as “ sản phẩm may mặc gia công”.The words “ cut” means “cắt” and “make” means “làm, chế tạo”,when we see them- standing before the noun “ product”, we can get it as “the product is cut and made by hand” but we can not translate as “ sản phẩm được làm bằng tay”. If this term is transferred word by word from English into Vietnamese, translation result may become more redundant. In order to avoid bad translation versions, paraphrase is the best strategy. Some examples for this strategy: 43
43. Source Language Target Language Bonded warehouse transaction Mua hàng tại kho có kí quỹ Lay days and cancelling date Thời gian tàu nằm tại cảng để xếp/ dỡ hàng và ngày hết hạn xếp/ dỡ Freight all kinds rate Cước trọn container chứa nhiều mặt hàng Cutting, making, trimming Gia công theo phương thức mua nguyên liệu, bán thành phẩm dệt may Non-cash item Hạng mục phi tiền mặt Non-monetary assets and liabilities Tài sản và nợ phi tiền tệ Out- of-the-money option Quyền chọn ngoài giá Back to back letter of credit Thư tín dụng giáp lưng Stand-by letter of credit Thư tín dụng dự phòng Semi knock-down Linh kiện bán đồng bộ London-Interbank-Offered Rate Lãi suất cho vay trên thị trường liên ngân hàng London London-Interbank-bid rate Lãi suất di vay trên thị trường liên ngân hàng London 2.5. Translation by using a loan word with or without explanation This strategy is very useful when the translator deal with concepts or ideas that are new to Vietnamese readers while they are widely known in English 44
44. 2.5.1. General terms For instance, UPC (Universal Product Code) is a loan word that is frequently used in Vietnamese economy industries. Vietnamese use it as a Vietnamese word like “hệ thống UCP” and everybody can understand it. In import-export transaction, Vietnamese often use “giá CIF”(Cost, insurance & freight) or “giá FOB”(Free on board). CIF and FOB have been commonly used in Vietnam for a long time, they are used without any accompanying explanation. CIP(Carriage & Insurance paid to) Giá CIP( cước phí và bảo hiểm trả tới đích) CFR(Costs and Freights) Giá CFR (Tiền hàng và cước phí) CPT(Carriage paid to) Giá CPT(Cước phí trả tới đích) CIF.c (Cost, insurance,freight and Giá CIF và hoa hồng cho trung gian commission) CIF.e (Cost, insurance, freight and Giá CIF và phí chuyển đổi tiền exchange) CIF.i (Cost,insurance,freight and Giá CIF và lãi xuất chiết khấu hối interest) phiếu Incoterms(Internation commercial Các điều kiện Incoterms terms) Container yard Bãi container 2.5.2. Acronyms An acronym is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. 45
45. Almost acronyms are formed by the initialism that is a group of initial letters used for a name or expression, each letter being pronounced separately,such as DDU (Delivered Duty Unpaid) or DEQ (Delivered Ex Quay). With an acronym, translators can make terms to be shortened to avoid the redundancy while the readers still get them. The following attached reference table is illustrations in order that readers can closely approach with this strategy: Source Language Target Language CWO(Cash with order) Tiền giao theo lệnh DAF(Delivered at frontier) Giao hàng tại biên giới COD(Cash on delivery) Trả tiền khi giao hàng ID(Import declaration) Tờ khai nhập khẩu IQ(Import quota) Hạn ngạch nhập khẩu M.AWB(Master air way bill) Vận đơn chủ (hàng không) UCC(Uniform commercial code 195) Luật thương mại quốc tế 195 D/P(Document against payment) Trả tiền đổi chứng từ D/A(Document against acceptance) Chấp nhận thanh toán đổi chứng từ CCC(The customs cooperation Hội đồng hợp tác hải quan council) B/L( Bill of lading) Vận đơn 46
46. FAS(Free alongside ship) Giao hàng dọc mạn tàu GATT(General agreement on Tariff Hiệp ước chung về thuế quan và mậu &Trade) dịch L/C(Letter of credit) Thư tín dụng MTD(Multi-transport document) Chứng từ vận tải đa phương thức CFS(Container freight station) Bãi để container đã nhận chuyên chở MTO(Multi-transport operator) Nghiệp vụ vận tải đa phương thức FCL(Full container load) Hàng xếp đầy container S/O(Shipping order) Lệnh giao hàng SWIFT(Society world interbank Mạng thanh toán liên ngân hàng toán financial telecommunication) cầu CIA(Cash in advance) Tiền mặt trả trước CAD(Cash against documents) Trả tiền mặt đổi chứng từ COR(Cargo outturn report) Biên bản hàng hư hỏng To conclude, within the above chapter, I indicated some popular strategies applied in translation of import-export trade terms such as recognized translation, transposition translation, translation by omission, translation by addition, translation by using loan word with or without explanation, translation by paraphrase using related words. To some extent, these strategies can help translators get the best TL in translation process. 47
47. CHAPTER THREE: IMPLICATION I. Some problems in translation process 1.1. The difficulties in translation of some terms In each specific field, there are a lot of terms, especially terms are formed by many ways. Due to the limitation of knowledge about the specific field, translators certainly meet difficulties in translating terms. Some terms express new concepts or new ideas which are formed in the working process of each field or formed by using habits or slang such as revolving L/C (thư tín dụng tuần hoàn), over-the counter transactions( giao dịch trên thị trường phi tập trung), buy-back (nghiệp vụ mua lại), cost plus contract (gia công theo phương thức thực chi thực thanh), target price contract (gia công theo giá định mức), etc. In fact, there are a lot of terms which are easily guessed the meanings basing on the meaning of each word or via shift translation. For instance, the term “bank bill” means “ hối phiếu ngân hàng”, we can easily get its meaning through the meaning of the word “bank” and “bill”.Or the term “Import restrictions”, we can easily translate it as “giới hạn nhập khẩu” by looking up the word “import” and “restriction” in dictionary. On the contrary, there are a lot of terms or phrases which we can translate individual words but it is difficult to guess the meaning of whole term or focus on a word or expression in Vietnamese equivalent. In this case, if we apply word for word strategy in 48
48. translation, it is possible to cause a misunderstand or restriction. For example, “Deferred L/C” means “ thư tín dụng thanh toán dần dần” or “bill of lading advice” is known as “ vận đơn đường biển cấp trướ c”, “free in” means “điều kiện miễn xếp” and “ free out” means “điều kiện miễn dỡ” Sometimes, translators also meet difficulties in translating of abbreviation because abbreviations are formed by so lots of methods, if translators have limitation of knowledge about what they stands for, they can fail to find the convert meaning of word in dictionary. 1.2. The difficulties related to the polysemy in English Words in general English can carry different meanings and express new concepts in specific English. The translators often misunderstand the meaning of words between general English and specific English. In specific cases, each word expresses each different meaning. For example, the word “clean” in general English means “ sạch”, it can be used like “clean water”(nước sạch) but in specific English, like “clean draft” is known as “ hối phiếu trơn” or “clean bill of lading” means “ vận đơn hoàn hảo” In general text, “reciprocal” means “ mutual or each other”, its Vietnamese equivalent is known as “lẫn nhau” or in linguistics it means “ quan hệ tương hỗ”, in maths, it means “đảo, thuận nghịch” ,however,when it is used in import-export trade field like “ reciprocal L/C” means “thư tín dụng đối ứng”. II. Some suggestions to solve the problems In this part, I would like to suggest some ideas to solve the above problems and get more effective translation text. 49
49. Firstly, make sure that you always improve your English to limit new terms, before translating you need to read carefully the SL text thus you can guess the content of TL text. When you meet new terms, look at the way the terms are made up. Do the terms remind you of any terms you already know? Many terms are made up of common roots they share with other terms. You may be able to deduce the meaning of the new terms from the way prefixes, sufixes are put together and the way they are used. You should consult a dictionary to be sure. Secondly, when translating terms of import-export trade field, translators should avoid using word-for-word translation strategy. Although basically, most of terms are translated by using general word, sometimes it is necessary to translate an English term by a long phrase or even a whole sentence to help readers understand. For example, “offset” means “đền bù” from dictionary, but we should use translation strategy by addition so it means “ giao dịch bồi hoàn” Or “prime interest rate” we should use literal translation strategy, it is translated as “ lãi suất ưu đãi” Thirdly, before translating terms of any field translators should pay attention to the knowledge of that field thus translators can get the best Vietnamese equivalent, avoid using incorrectly and decrease above difficulties. Final is the suggestion when translating abbreviation, as said in above part, there are many ways to made up an abrreviation . Firstly, translators find the right full form of them by searching them in related books or on the internet then applying word for word or automatic translation to translating them. For example, CIF stands for “ Cost, insurance and freight”, we apply word for word strategy, so it means “tiền hàng, bảo hiểm và cước phí” 50
50. Or INCOTERMS stands for “International Commercial Terms” means “Điều kiện thương mại quốc tế” (translating by automatic translation) 51
51. PART III: CONCLUSION Nowadays, English is considered an international language; consequently, it becomes an obligatory subject in schools and universities. More importantly, using English skillfully becomes an indispensable condition of an import- export officers. My graduation paper is divided into three parts, the rationale, aims, methods, scope and design of the study are mentioned in part one aiming at helping the readers could have an overview of my study. Part two is the most important in this study including three chapters. Based on the theoretical background of translation and translation methods in chapter one, chapter two gives some strategies applied in translation of some common import-export trade terms such as recognized translation, shift translation, translation by omission, translation by addition, translation by paraphrase using related words, translation by using loan word with or without explanation. Then, some problems in translation process and some suggestions are given in chapter three. Part three summarizes main ideas mentioned in previous parts and gives some suggestions for further study. From this study, it can be concluded that terms in import-export trade field are very interesting, however; the field covers a very large area. Some suggestions drawn from this study for further research such as study on translation of terms in international payment contract or study on translation of terms related to documentary of import-export fields, etc. At last, due to the limitation of time and knowledge, and the lack of experience, mistakes are unavoidable in this paper. All remarks and contributions are deeply welcome and highly appreciated. 52
52. REFERENCES 1. Baker M. (1992) A coursebook on translation (London Routledge) 2. Bell R.T (1991) Translation and translating : Theory and Practice (Applied Linguistics and Language Study), London: Longman Group Ltd 3. Catford J.C (1996) A linguistic theory of translation (London Oxford University Press) 4. Hutchinson,T. &Waters,A (1987) English for Specific Purposes: A learning- centered approach (Cambridge University Press) 5. Jakobson R. (1959) Linguistic aspects of translation 6. Peter Newmark (1988) A text book of translation: theoretical and practical implications (Oxford: Pergamon press) 7. Tony Dudley- Evans and Maggie Jo St John (1998) Developments in English for Specific purposes: A multi- disciplinary approach (Cambridge University Press) 8. GS.Ts Hoàng Văn Châu & Th.S Tô Bình Minh, Các điều kiện thương mại quốc tế (Incoterms 2000), Nhà xuất bản khoa học và kỹ thuật 9. T.S Trần Văn Hoè , Nghiệp vụ kinh doanh xuất nhập khẩu , Nhà xuất bản Trường Đại học Kinh tế Quốc dân 10. T.S Trần Văn Hoè , Tín dụng và thanh toán thương mại quốc tế , Nhà xuất bản Trường Đại học Kinh tế Quốc dân. Websites: px 53